Research spotlight: Obesity in dogs

Obesity is becoming increasingly common in dogs around the world, impacting their health and welfare. According to the Association for Pet Obesity Prevention, 59% of dogs in the United States were classified as overweight or obese in 2022. While estimates vary, studies have suggested a similarly high level in other countries. A survey of eleven European countries found that 30-70% of dogs were overweight (Muñoz-Prieto et al, 2018). Prevalence of overweight/obesity was reported as 35.8% in Brazil, (Machado et al., 2022), 48% in India (Meena et al., 2021) and 28.4% in New Zealand (Gates et al., 2019).

Obesity is an important animal welfare issue because it is linked with many diseases, including endocrine, orthopaedic, reproductive and cardiorespiratory disorders, and can result in poor life quality and a shorter lifespan. Veterinary input is important for the prevention and management of obesity in dogs and other companion animals.

CABI Digital Library comprehensively covers this topic, bringing together a wealth of bibliographic information and full text articles to support study and practice. Use the searches in this research spotlight to retrieve the most relevant results across research records, books, cases and journal articles.

Searching the CABI Digital Library

For a comprehensive search across the topic, use:

Search: (od:dogs OR et:"dogs") AND ("obese" OR "obesity" OR "overweight")

The search results can be refined by subject area (CABI Codes) or by using filters such as author and item type. The database records can be further limited to Grey Literature or to Evidence Based Research to discover evidence synthesis literature including systematic reviews and meta-analyses.

Risk factors

Factors contributing to the development of obesity in dogs include breed, genetics, age, gender and neutered status (Chiang et al., 2021). The need to adjust nutritional management after neutering is highlighted in a review by Vendramini et al. (2020). Diet, feeding practices and level of physical activity are all important owner-controlled risk factors. Understanding how owners’ beliefs and behaviour are associated with obesity in dogs can help to identify potential targets for interventions (Webb et al., 2020). For further reading, see Human Behaviour Change Models for Improving Animal Welfare (Carroll et al., 2021).

Search: risk factors for obesity

Search: breed/genetic factors AND obesity

Search: spaying/neutering AND overweight/obesity

Impact on health and welfare

Obesity contributes to or is associated with a number of diseases (Porsani et al., 2020). It can impact quality of life and even reduce lifespan (Salt et al., 2019; Montoya et al., 2023). Diseases found concurrently with overweight or obesity include orthopaedic disorders (e.g. arthritis, cruciate ligament rupture), endocrine disorders (e.g. hypothyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism), urinary tract disease, respiratory dysfunction, diabetes, and pancreatitis. A relationship has been found between obesity and cancer (Marchi et al., 2022).

Search: orthopaedic disorders and overweight/obesity

Search: diabetes and overweight/obesity

Search: neoplasms and overweight/obesity

Search: animal welfare aspects of obesity

Search: lifespan and overweight/obesity

Body condition scoring

Body condition score (BCS), based on the shape of the animal and how easily palpable the ribs are, is used to divide dogs into a number of categories, ranging from ‘emaciated’ to ‘severely obese’ (Sandøe et al., 2014). BCS is a useful tool to estimate body fat composition in dogs. However, it can be rather subjective (Otsuji and Koizumi, 2017). Assessments of BCS by owners and veterinary professionals may differ (Sutherland et al., 2023). In 2018, the Association for Pet Obesity Prevention, created the Global Pet Obesity Initiative (GPOI) to create a universal set of pet obesity definitions and standardize the BCS for dogs and cats. These guidelines have been accepted by 25 of the world’s leading veterinary medical organizations.

Search: body condition scoring

Client communication

Owners are faced with considerable choice when it comes to feeding their pets. The veterinary healthcare team is an important source of nutrition information. The Global Nutrition Committee (GNC) of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA) published global nutrition guidelines in 2011 to help veterinary healthcare teams educate clients on optimal nutrition for their dog or cat. Following on from this, the GNC has developed support materials and practical aids as part of the Global Nutrition Toolkit, available on the WSAVA website.

Owners may not recognize when their dog is overweight (Lloyd et al., 2023). Knowledge gaps among dog owners concerning body condition and dietary requirements can negatively affect animal welfare (Forrest et al., 2022). A study by Evason et al. (2020) highlights a need for client nutrition education and also reveals a client interest in receiving both nutrition and exercise communication. Pet weight is a key topic for veterinary professionals to discuss with clients, but this may not be easy when pets are overweight or obese (Sutherland et al., 2022). It has been suggested that veterinarians should address the issue of pet obesity each time it is recognized, to meet ethical and professional obligations (Kipperman and German, 2018).

How to have successful conversations with clients about nutrition is explored in Developing an interprofessional nutrition programme: Communication, a chapter of An Interprofessional Approach to Veterinary Nutrition (Lumbis and Kinnison, 2023).

Search: client communication

Weight loss

Obesity can be difficult to reverse. For success, an owner must alter often long-standing feeding practices and habits (Larsen and Villaverde, 2016). Successful weight management programmes need to incorporate an understanding of human-animal interaction (Linder and Mueller, 2014). A study of factors associated with failure of weight loss programmes found that non-compliance by owners was most important (Porsani et al., 2020). It has been suggested that weight management regimens can be made more successful by better tailoring them to the individual (German, 2016). A large international study of short-term dietary weight loss interventions in overweight dogs found that most dogs did lose some weight. Sexually intact dogs lost more weight than neutered dogs, whilst female dogs lost more weight than male dogs, with the difference being more pronounced in North and South American dogs compared with those from Europe (Flanagan et al., 2017).

Search: weight loss programmes

One Health perspective

Obesity in humans is also a growing global problem and a significant public health challenge. Studies suggest a relationship between obesity in dogs and obesity in their owners. A study in Spain found that having an overweight owner was the most important factor in the occurrence of obesity in dogs (Suarez et al., 2022).

One approach to tackling obesity is by taking a 'One Health' perspective. One Health programmes involving human healthcare professionals and veterinarians could help address obesity with interventions at the community level (Chandler et al., 2017). A study by Niese et al. (2021) found mutual benefits of combined weight loss programmes for dogs and their owners.

Obesity is one of the shared health risks covered in One Health for Veterinary Nurses and Technicians (Jones and Jeffery, 2023). By educating owners about their animal’s needs, this may offer a novel way of discussing the owner’s own health and wellbeing.

Articles on physical activity associated with dog ownership and possible health benefits can be found in Human-Animal Interactions.

Search: One Health aspects of overweight/obesity

Explore further One Health resources in the One Health Knowledge Bank

Selected articles

Chandler, M., Cunningham, S., Lund, E. M., Khanna, C., Naramore, R., Patel, A., Day, M. J. (2017). Obesity and associated comorbidities in people and companion animals: a One Health perspective. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 156(4), 296-309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcpa.2017.03.006

Chiang, C. F., Villaverde, C., Chang, W. C., Fascetti, A. J., Larsen, J. A. (2022). Prevalence, risk factors, and disease associations of overweight and obesity in dogs that visited the veterinary medical teaching hospital at the University of California, Davis from January 2006 to December 2015. Topics in Companion Animal Medicine, 48, 100640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcam.2022.100640

Evason, M., Peace, M., Munguia, G., Stull, J. (2020). Clients' knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to pet nutrition and exercise at a teaching hospital. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 61(5), 512-516.

Flanagan, J., Bissot, T., Hours, M. A., Moreno, B., Feugier, A., German, A. J. (2017). Success of a weight loss plan for overweight dogs: The results of an international weight loss study. PLoS ONE, 12(9), e0184199. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184199

Forrest, R., Awawdeh, L., Esam, F., Pearson, M., Waran, N. (2022). Potential owner-related risk factors that may contribute to obesity in companion dogs in Aotearoa New Zealand. Animals, 12(3), 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12030267

Gates, M. C., Zito, S., Harvey, L. C., Dale, A., Walker, J. K. (2019). Assessing obesity in adult dogs and cats presenting for routine vaccination appointments in the North Island of New Zealand using electronic medical records data. New Zealand Veterinary Journal, 67(3), 126-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/00480169.2019.1585990

German A. J. (2016). Outcomes of weight management in obese pet dogs: what can we do better?. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 75(3), 398-404. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665116000185

Kipperman, B. S., German, A. J. (2018). The responsibility of veterinarians to address companion animal obesity. Animals, 8(9), 143. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani8090143

Larsen, J.A., Villaverde, C. (2016). Scope of the problem and perception by owners and veterinarians. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Small Animal Practice, 46(5), 761-772. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2016.04.001

Linder, D., Mueller, M. (2014). Pet obesity management: beyond nutrition. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Small Animal Practice, 44(4), 789-806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2014.03.004

Lloyd, I., Furtado, T., German, A. J., Watkins, F., Christley, R., Westgarth, C. (2023). "He'd be happier if he wasn't chonky" - qualitatively exploring canine obesity perceptions using YouTube™ and discussion fora. Anthrozoös, 36(4), 513-531. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2023.2166714

Machado, B. S., Bruno, C. E., Silva, D. I., Barth, J. C., Santos, L. P., Alves, M. S., Araújo, A. C. P., Pöppl, Á. G. (2022). An overweight/obesity survey among dogs and cats attended at a veterinary teaching hospital during the second year of the COVID-19 pandemic. Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, 74(6), 999-1006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-4162-12696

Marchi, P. H., Vendramini, T. H. A., Perini, M. P., Zafalon, R. V. A., Amaral, A. R., Ochamotto, V. A., Da Silveira, J. C., Dagli, M. L. Z., Brunetto, M. A. (2022). Obesity, inflammation, and cancer in dogs: Review and perspectives. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, 1004122. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2022.1004122

Meena, Y. K., Gupta, S. R., Sain, M. L., Rajendra Yadav, Sunita Choudhary, Kachhawa, J. P., Singh, A. P. (2021). Prevalence and risk factors associated with obesity in dogs. Veterinary Practitioner, 22(1), 55-59. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20220220080

Montoya, M., Morrison, J. A., Arrignon, F., Spofford, N., Charles, H., Hours, M. A., Biourge, V. (2023). Life expectancy tables for dogs and cats derived from clinical data. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, 1082102. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1082102

Muñoz-Prieto, A., Nielsen, L. R., Dąbrowski, R., Bjørnvad, C. R., Söder, J., Lamy, E., Monkeviciene, I., Ljubić, B. B., Vasiu, I., Savic, S., Busato, F., Yilmaz, Z., Bravo-Cantero, A. F., Öhlund, M., Lucena, S., Zelvyte, R., Aladrović, J., Lopez-Jornet, P., Caldin, M., Lavrador, C., Karveliene, B., Mrljak, V., Mazeikiene, J., Tvarijonaviciute, A. (2018). European dog owner perceptions of obesity and factors associated with human and canine obesity. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 13353. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-31532-0

Otsuji, K.; Koizumi, A. (2017). Body condition scoring in dogs. Veterinary Focus, 27 (2), 10-11. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/20173343511

Porsani, M. Y. H., Teixeira, F. A., Amaral, A. R., Pedrinelli, V., Vasques, V., de Oliveira, A. G., Vendramini, T. H. A., Brunetto, M. A. (2020). Factors associated with failure of dog's weight loss programmes. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 6(3), 299-305. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.229

Salt, C., Morris, P. J., Wilson, D., Lund, E. M., German, A. J. (2019). Association between life span and body condition in neutered client-owned dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 33(1), 89-99. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.15367

Suarez, L., Bautista-Castaño, I., Peña Romera, C., Montoya-Alonso, J. A., Corbera, J. A. (2022). Is dog owner obesity a risk factor for canine obesity? A "One-Health" study on human-animal interaction in a region with a high prevalence of obesity. Veterinary Sciences, 9(5), 243. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci9050243

Sutherland, K. A., Coe, J. B., O'Sullivan, T. L. (2023). Assessing owners' readiness to change their behaviour to address their companion animal's obesity. Veterinary Record, 192(3), e1979. https://doi.org/10.1002/vetr.1979

Sutherland, K. A., Coe, J. B., Janke, N., O'Sullivan, T. L., Parr, J. M. (2022). Veterinary professionals' weight-related communication when discussing an overweight or obese pet with a client. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 260(9), 1076-1085. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.22.01.0043

Vendramini, T. H. A., Amaral, A. R., Pedrinelli, V., Zafalon, R. V. A., Rodrigues, R. B. A., Brunetto, M. A. (2020). Neutering in dogs and cats: current scientific evidence and importance of adequate nutritional management. Nutrition Research Reviews, 33(1), 134-144. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954422419000271

Webb, T. L., du Plessis, H., Christian, H., Raffan, E., Rohlf, V., White, G. A. (2020). Understanding obesity among companion dogs: New measures of owner's beliefs and behaviour and associations with body condition scores. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 180, 105029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105029

Further reading on the CABI Digital Library

Books/book chapters

Broom, D. M. (2021). Welfare of dogs. In: Broom and Fraser’s domestic animal behaviour and welfare. CABI. doi: 10.1079/9781789249835.0039

Carroll, G. A., Groarke, J. M., Graham-Wisener, L. (2021). Human behaviour change models for improving animal welfare. In: Bridging research disciplines to advance animal welfare science: a practical guide [edited by Camerlink, I.]. CABI. doi: 10.1079/9781789247886.0006.

Jones, R., Jeffery, A. (2023). One Health for veterinary nurses and technicians: an introduction. CABI. doi: 10.1079/9781789249477.0000

Lumbis, R., Kinnison, T. (2023). An interprofessional approach to veterinary nutrition. CABI. doi: 10.1079/9781800621107.0000

Sandøe, P., Corr, S. and Palmer, C. (2014). Fat companions: understanding the welfare effects of obesity in cats and dogs. In: Dilemmas in animal welfare. CABI. doi: 10.1079/9781780642161.0028

Turner, D. C. (2015). Non-communicable diseases: how can companion animals help in connection with coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes and depression? In: One Health: the theory and practice of integrated health approaches. doi: 10.1079/9781780643410.0222

Cases

MacKay, J. R. D., Pollock, K. (2023). Human behaviour in veterinary care. Animal Behaviour and Welfare Cases. doi: 10.1079/abwcases.2023.0021.

CABI Reviews

Alasmar, M., El-Khodery, S., Youssef, M., El-Ashker, M. (2023). A narrative review of current perspectives on urinary tract infections in dogs and cats. CABI Reviews. doi: 10.1079/cabireviews.2023.0029

Bland, I., Hill, J. (2011). Tackling dog obesity by tackling owner attitudes. CABI Reviews. doi: 10.1079/PAVSNNR20116006

McKenzie, B. (2010). Evaluating the benefits and risks of neutering dogs and cats. CABI Reviews. doi: 10.1079/PAVSNNR20105045

Human-Animal Interactions

Benedikt, H., Udo, G., Ingo, F. (2022). Impacts of dog ownership and attachment on total and dog-related physical activity in Germany. Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin. doi: 10.1079/hai.2022.0002

Duvall Antonacopoulos, N. M., Pychyl, T. A. (2018). An examination of the possible physical activity and short-term health benefits associated with dog walking. Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin. doi: 10.1079/hai.2018.0011

Lim, C., Higgins, J. W., Rhodes, R. E. (2021). Working out with F.I.D.O. (frequency, intensity, duration, & outcomes): A feasibility randomized controlled trial. Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin. doi: 10.1079/hai.2021.0025

Additional information

To view the information in this blog in a summarized form, together with other research spotlights, see: Research Spotlights

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