Varroa destructor (Varroa mite)
Datasheet Types: Natural enemy, Pathogen, Vector of animal disease, Arthropod, Invasive species
Abstract
This datasheet on Varroa destructor covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Vectors & Intermediate Hosts, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Impacts, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman, 2000
- Preferred Common Name
- Varroa mite
Pictures
Adult female
Varroa destructor (Varroa mite); extreme close-up of an adult female. Dorsal view, on the head of a bee larva. mite width ~2mm.
©Gilles San Martin, Namur, Belgium/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 2.0
Host
Varroa destructor (Varroa mite); European honey bee (Apis mellifera) with a Varroa mite (arrowed) on its thorax. Major mite infestations cause disease and death in honey bee colonies.
©Scott Bauer/USDA-ARS
Similar species
Varroa jacobsoni (Varroa mite); dorsal view. Similar species to V. destructor. Collected on Apis cerana.
©Ken Walker-2005/Museum Victoria - CC BY 3.0 AU - www.padil.gov.au
Host
Varroa destructor (Varroa mite); an adult worker honey bee (Apis mellifera) with two Varroa mites on its thorax.
©Stephen Ausmus/USDA-ARS
Similar species
Varroa jacobsoni (Varroa mite); ventral view. similar species to V. destructor. Collected on Apis cerana.
©Ken Walker-2005/Museum Victoria - CC BY 3.0 AU - www.padil.gov.au
Mite
Varroa destructor, a blood-sucking parasitic mite of honey bees (Apis mellifera).
©Scott Bauer/USDA-ARS
Infestation
Varroa destructor (Varroa mite); varroa mites found at the bottom of a honey bee brood cell.
©Scott Bauer/USDA-ARS
Adult female mite
Varroa destructor (Varroa mite); an adult female Varroa mite feeding on a developing bee.
©Scott Bauer/USDA-ARS
Prevention measures
Varroa destructor (Varroa mite); entomologist Jeff Pettis examines a screen that separates live Varroa mites from bees, thus reducing mite levels in honey bee colonies.
©Peggy Greb/USDA-ARS
Prevention measures
Varroa destructor (Varroa mite); although the 22% smaller size of starter honeycomb cells (b) can hardly be seen, the tighter, more natural spacing than (a) helps honey bees survive Varroa infestations.
©Jack Dykinga/USDA-ARS
Diseases Table
Summary of Invasiveness
V. destructor is an ectoparasitic mite that attacks all lifecycle stages of many species of honey bees, including the common Apis mellifera and its subspecies. It is now almost cosmopolitan with the significant exception of Australia. Importation of queen bees from infested areas and movement of infested bee colonies for pollination have allowed rapid spread, and apiculture can be severely affected. Impacts include direct parasitism, and facilitation of the spread of bee viruses and diseases; if left unchecked, infestation can lead to colony collapse. Eradication from infested hives is not possible, though chemical, biotechnical and biological control methods mitigate the impacts.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The genus Varroa includes in excess of 18 genetically different strains of mites (Cobey, 2001). Varroa destructor and Varroa jacobsoni (Acari: Varroidae) are thought to be closely related (Zhang, 2000; Delaplane, 2001), both parasitizing the Asian honey bee, Apis cerana. However, V. jacobsoni, originally described by Oudemans in 1904, is not the same species as that which also attacks Apis mellifera, and Anderson and Trueman (2000) corrected previous confusion and mislabelling in the literature prior to 2000, recognising V. destructor as a separate species. The Korea and Japan/Thailand genotypes of V. destructor are the only Varroa mites that can reproduce in colonies of Apis mellifera.
Pathogen Characteristics
Adult female mites are reddish-brown to dark-brown (Sanford et al., 2007), 1.00-1.77 mm long and 1.50-1.99 wide (Denmark et al., 2000), bodies curved, fitting into abdominal folds of adult bees, held in place by the ventral setae of the host so protected from the bee’s cleaning habits. Adult male mites are yellowish with slightly tanned legs, 0.75-0.91 mm long and 0.71-0.88 mm wide, with a spherical body. The male chelicerae are modified for the transfer of sperm, only occurring in sealed broods. For a full, detailed description of the protonymph and deutonymph stages see Delfinado-Baker (1984).
Morphological differences have been recorded in mites parasitizing honey bees in hive-logs. The winter generation had bigger dorsal and ventral shields, smaller gnathosoma, and increasing transversal body size, greater ventral shield size and smaller legs compared to the winter generation from hives (Akimov and Benedyk, 2004), and a lower morphological variability compared to summer generations (Akimov et al., 2004).
Species Vectored
Distribution
V. destructor is thought to be native to the Far East where it parasitizes the Asiatic honey bee Apis cerana and is not invasive, though it has been introduced widely and is now a cosmopolitan species (Sanford et al., 2007), with Australia being the only large area not yet invaded.
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
From its origins in the Far East, V. destructor has spread, facilitated by the movement of infested bee colonies for pollination. It remained confined to Asian Apis species as hosts until it appeared on the introduced A. mellifera, possibly in the 1950s, since when it has spread through much of the current range of this common (European) honey bee.
It reached the UK in 1992, and by 2005 it was thought to be present in nearly all apiaries in England and Wales, and widespread in Scotland and Northern Ireland (Fera, 2010). It is present as far north as Sweden, although horizontal mite transfer may not be as important in its spread in Nordic climates where many bee colonies and their mites die over winter, compared with warmer climates (Fries et al., 2003). It was first detected in the USA in 1987 and has since spread to most of North America, with Sanford (2001) providing a full description of the introduction, spread and economic impact of V. destructor. V. destructor was recorded in New Zealand by 2000 (Zhang, 2000), with maximum local spread of V. destructor in North Island estimated at 12 (10-15) km per year (Stevenson et al., 2005). It is also invasive in the Middle East and South America (Denmark et al., 2000).
Risk of Introduction
Deliberate and illegal importation of bees from infested countries presents a possible long distance pathway for further introduction to new areas (Fera, 2010), and introduction to areas with A. mellifera not yet invaded is probable. CSIRO estimated that preventing the Varroa mite from entering Australia over the next 30 years would lead to savings of AUS $21.3-50.5 million per year.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
Mites are mobile and can easily spread within a bee colony (Fera, 2010) though they are unable to travel outside of the hives without a vector.
Mites are mobile and can easily spread within a bee colony (Fera, 2010) though they are unable to travel outside of the hives without a vector.
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Mites can be spread from colony to colony via drifting workers and drones within an apiary and when bees rob smaller colonies (Bessin, 2001). In addition to being carried on honey bees, this mite has been recorded on flower-feeding insects such as bumblebees Bombus pennsylvanicus (Hymenoptera: Apidae), flower flies Palpada vinetorum (Diptera: Syrphidae) and rainbow scarab beetles Phanaeus vindex (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). These insects will aid in short distance dispersal, but V. destructor can only reproduce on honey bees (Kevan et al., 1990; Denmark et al., 2000).
Accidental Introduction
The movement of infested colonies of bees has facilitated the rapid local spread of V. destructor (Denmark et al., 2000), and is the main means of spread over long distances (Fera, 2010).
Intentional Introduction
Deliberate illegal importation of bees from infested countries and the importation of infested goods are possible pathways of introduction of the Varroa mite (Fera, 2010), and the assumed means for international introductions.
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Breeding and propagation (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Host and vector organisms (pathway vector) | Yes |
Host Animals
| Host animal | Context | Life stages | Production systems |
|---|---|---|---|
| Apis cerana (Asian honeybee) | Other/All Stages | ||
| Apis koschevnikovi | Other/All Stages | ||
| Apis mellifera (European honeybee) | Domesticated host | Other/All Stages |
Vectors and Intermediate Hosts
| Vector | References | Group | Distribution |
|---|---|---|---|
| Apis cerana (Asian honeybee) | Insect | Asia | |
| Apis koschevnikovi | Insect | South East Asia | |
| Apis mellifera (European honeybee) | Insect | World | |
| Bombus pennsylvanicus | Insect | ||
| Palpada vinetorum | Insect | ||
| Phanaeus vindex | Insect |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
V. destructor was first described as Varroa jacobsoni by Oudemans (1904) from Java on Apis cerana (Sanford et al., 2007) though it was later discovered that the mite infesting A. mellifera was a different species and thus named V. destructor. After studying mtDNA sequences and morphological characters of V. jabonsoni populations globally, Anderson and Trueman (2000) considered V. jacobsoni to be a species including V. jacobsoni s.s. infesting A. cerana in the Malaysia-Indonesia region, and V. destructor infesting A. cerana in mainland Asia and A. mellifera worldwide.
Adult females of V. destructor are significantly larger and less spherical than V. jacobsoni females, from which they are reproductively isolated (Anderson and Trueman, 2000).
V. destructor is also often confused with the bee louse, Braula coeca Nitzsch (Diptera: Braulidae); however, the latter has 6 legs, and is more circular and slightly larger at 1.5 mm long (Bessin, 2001).
Habitat
V. destructor can be present in any habitat where its hosts are found; these include A. mellifera native to Africa, Europe and the Middle East but now widely introduced, A. cerana, native to Asia east of Afghanistan, and A. koschevnikovi native to Borneo (Denmark et al., 2000).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
It is reported that 50 years ago, V. destructor switched from its original host (Apis cerana) and two distinct evolutionary lineages of V. destructor (Korean and Japanese) invaded A. mellifera (Solignac et al., 2005; Cornuet et al., 2006). V. destructor is made up of six haplotypes that infest A. cerana in mainland Asia (Anderson and Trueman, 2000), whereas only two out of the several known mitochondrial haplotypes of V. destructor have been found to be capable of reproducing on A. mellifera (Solignac et al., 2005). This parasitic mite is haplo-diploid and reproduces mainly through brother-sister matings which favours the fixation of new mutations (Cornuet et al., 2006). For further information on the two partly isolated clones of V. destructor, see Solignac et al. (2005).
Reproductive Biology
The entire life-cycle of V. destructor occurs within the hive. A female mite lays eggs in bee brood cells and developing mites feed on developing bee larvae (Denmark et al., 2000), preferring drone brood (Bessin, 2001). Males and females copulate inside the cell and the male dies, leaving the pregnant females to emerge from the cell with the bee host. Another cell is located to repeat the cycle, and the mite population increase may be significantly greater if the postcapping time is longer. The mite develops to adulthood through two juvenile stages: the protonymph and deutonymph, and development time from egg to adult is 5-6 days for males and 7-8 days for females. Each female lays 5-6 eggs, the first being a male followed by 4-5 female eggs, laid at regular 30-hour intervals. The male emerges first, and 20 hours later the oldest daughter moults to adulthood. By laying only one male egg, Varroa mites increase the number of females that can reproduce at the next generation. Males cannot survive outside the cell, so the females must be fertilised before the bee emerges from the cell, otherwise they remain sterile (Fera, 2010). The life expectancy of Varroa mites depends on the presence of brood and will vary from 27 days to approximately 5 months. During the summer in the UK, Varroa mites live for approximately 2-3 months. In this time, providing brood is available, they can complete 3-4 breeding cycles. In the winter, when brood rearing is restricted, mites only overwinter on adult bees within the cluster, until brood rearing commences the following spring (Fera, 2010).
Physiology and Phenology
The development time of V. destructor is dependant on the development time of its bee host; therefore not all mites reach maturity and mate before the bee emerges from the cell, and immature females cannot survive outside the cell (Fera, 2010). It is thought that the hormones or pheromones of honey bees are necessary for the mite to complete its development (Denmark et al., 2000).
Nutrition
V. destructor is highly adapted to its natural and adopted honey bee hosts, A. cerana and A. mellifera. Adult female mites perforate the integument of bee pupae in such a way that they and their progeny can feed on the blood from the adult bees and developing brood (Kanbar and Engels, 2005).
Associations
The parasitic life style of V. destructor means that it requires associations with bee hosts for survival. It has also been found to be associated with other flower-feeding insects, such as bumblebees Bombus pennsylvanicus (Hymenoptera: Apidae), flower flies Palpada vinetorum (Diptera: Syrphidae) and rainbow scarab beetles Phanaeus vindex (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae); however, it cannot reproduce on these hosts, although these associations may be important for dispersal (Denmark et al., 2000).
Environmental Requirements
In Egypt, outside temperature and reproduction of Varroa are positively correlated but only between 28 and 35°C, and reproductive rates of mite colonies in cultivations of marjoram (Origanum majorana) were lower than those on clover (Trifolium alexandrium) (Hassan and Mohamed, 2003).
Natural enemy of
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Negative |
Impact
One of the most significant potential impacts of Varroa mite includes economic, social and environmental concerns. Insect pollinated crops are estimated to provide approximately one third of human food, and about 80% of this pollination is provided by the European honeybee, Apis mellifera. Thus, a loss in numbers of A. mellifera due to infestation by V. destructor could lead to substantial negative but indirect impacts from lower crop yields due a lack of adequate pollinators.
As well as their direct effects on the bees, Varroa mites also have an impact by spreading diseases. Viruses causing mortality of bees infested with Varroa mite include Kashmir bee virus, showing virus transmission from mite to bee pupae and a virus transfer rate of over 50% from mite to mite (Chen et al., 2004; Todd et al., 2004). Other viruses thought to be transmitted by V. destructor are Deformed wing virus, Sacbrood virus, Acute bee paralysis virus (Tentcheva et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2005) and Slow paralysis virus. European foul brood caused by the coccoid bacteria Melissococcus pluton [M. plutonius] (Kanbar et al., 2004), and Paenibacillus, which causes American foul brood, may also be transmitted by V. destructor (Rycke et al., 2002). Benoit et al. (2004) reported on the potential of V. destructor to disperse spores of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Trichoderma, Alternaria, Rhizopus and Mucor throughout bee colonies. The fungi have only been recorded on the surface of mites and not internally, indicating that the mite is not a fungivore. The mould fungus, Aspergillus flavus is the agent of stonebrood disease in honey bees and V. destructor is implicated as a vector (Benoit et al., 2004).
Impact: Economic
Apiculture is severely affected by the activities of V. destructor, either by direct parasitism or indirectly by facilitating the spread of bee viruses and diseases. If left unchecked, mites can infest hives beyond an economic threshold and lead to colony collapse (Fera, 2010). Since being first recorded in New Zealand in 2000, Varroa has caused an approximate 50% reduction in the number of beekeepers.
Impact: Environmental
V. destructor attacks all life cycle stages of bees by sucking blood through punctures made in the host body wall, using its sharp mouthparts, weakening the insect and shortening lifespan, and also acting as a virus vector in colonies and aiding the harmful effects of other bee diseases such as acarapisosis caused by tracheal mites Acarpis woodi (Fera, 2010).
Honey bees offer an immeasurable contribution to floral biodiversity and conservation. The horticulture and agriculture sectors rely on pollinating insects such as Apis spp. V. destructor is devastating to bee colonies and a reduction in pollinating bees could result in reduced pollination and ultimately decreased overall yields and crop quality; for example the threat of invasion into Australia by this mite is considered as one of the greatest threats to insect pollination and thus to agriculture (Cunningham et al., 2002). Morretto and Leonidas (2003) stated that the impact of V. destructor is related to climatic conditions and the race of A. mellifera invaded, and a study in southern Brazil found mite infestation to be low (2 mites per 100 bees), and comparable to infestation levels 5 years previously.
Impact: Social
Collapse of colonies and the spread of bee diseases can have a serious affect on apiculture and thus is of particular concern to those who rely on beekeeping for their livelihoods (see Allsopp, 2004). Also, V. destructor has such a negative impact on beekeeping that it is possible some will forfeit their organic status in order to use varroicides not approved by organic certification bodies, to combat the problem with synthetic pesticides considered to be more effective (Biosecurity New Zealand, 2006).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Has high reproductive potential
Impact outcomes
Host damage
Increases vulnerability to invasions
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts animal health
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Pest and disease transmission
Parasitism (incl. parasitoid)
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Difficult/costly to control
Detection and Inspection
Calatayud and Verdu (1993) first described the method where mites are collected and counted from a board at the bottom of the hive to assess levels of mite infestation in bee hives. However, counting the natural fall of mites in shorter periods of time reduces the counting period and can be successfully used to determine when to treat colonies in commercial apiaries (Flores-Serrano et al., 2002).
Mites can also be dislodged by shaking adult bees in a jar of ether, or powdered sugar (Sanford et al., 2007), and they stick to the glass. A mathematical model called VARROAPOP predicts the influence of the Varroa mite on honey bee colony population growth and survival, taking into account weather conditions and honey bee and V. destructor biology, and the effects of miticides and immigration of mites into colonies on the population growth of Varroa and colony survival are also predicted (Degrandi-Hoffman and Curry, 2005).
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| BeeBase | https://secure.fera.defra.gov.uk/beebase/ | BeeBase is the website of the Fera (Food and Environment Research Agency, UK) National Bee Unit. |
| Biosecurity New Zealand | http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz | |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
.png)
References
Akimov IA, Benedyk SV, 2004. Comparative analysis of morphological characters of mite Varroa destructor (Parasitiformes, Varroidae) parasitizing honeybees from hive-logs in polessky preserve. Vestnik Zoologii, 38(6):57-63.
Akimov IA, Benedyk SV, Zaloznaya LM, 2004. Complex analysis of morphological characters of gamasid mite Varroa destructor (Parasitiformes, Varroidae). Vestnik Zoologii, 38(5):57-66, 96.
Alattal Y, Rosenkranz P, Zebitz CPW, 2006. Infestation levels of Varroa destructor in local honey bees of Jordan. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für allgemeine und angewandte Entomologie, 15:321-325.
Allam SFM, 2004. Effect of genetic and culture control against Varroa destructor on population of Varroa worker brood and adult bees during fall in Egypt. Annals of Agricultural Science, Moshtohor, 42(2):783-792.
Allam SFM, 2004. Genetic improvement and culture manipulation in comparison with chemicals to control Varroa mite, Varroa destructor (Acari-Varroidae). Annals of Agricultural Science, Moshtohor, 42(2):793-805.
Allsopp M, 2004. Cape honey bee (Apis mellifera capensis Eshscholtz) and Varroa mite (Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman) threats to honey bees and beekeeping in Africa. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 24(1):87-94.
Alves SB, Flechtmann CH, Rosa AE, 1975. Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans, 1904 (Acari: Mesostigma, Varroidae) also in Brazil. Ecossistema, 3:78-79.
Anderson DL, Trueman JWH, 2000. Varroa jacobsoni (Acari: Varroidae) is more than one species. Experimental & Applied Acarology, 24(3):165-189.
Aratanakul P, Burgett M, 1975. Varroa jacobsoni: A prospective pest of honey bees in many parts of the world. Bee World, 56:119-121.
Aumeier P, Rosenkranz P, Francke W, 2002. Cuticular volatiles, attractivity of worker larvae and invasion of brood cells by Varroa mites. A comparison of Africanized and European honey bees. Chemoecology, 12(2):65-75.
Bacandritsos N, Papanastasiou I, 2006. Evaluation of a thymol formulation efficacy against Varroa destructor under Central Greek climatic conditions. Deltion tes Ellenikes Kteniatrikes Etaireias = Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society, 57(2):107-115.
Barlow VM, Fell RD, 2006. Sampling methods for Varroa mites on the domesticated honey bee. USA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/entomology/444-103/444-103.html
Benoit JB, Yoder JA, Sammataro D, Zettler LW, 2004. Mycoflora and fungal vector capacity of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor (Mesostigmata: Varroidae) in honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colonies. International Journal of Acarology, 30(2):103-106.
Bessin R, 2001. Varroa mites infesting honey bee colonies. USA: University of Kentucky, College of Agriculture, Entomology. http://www.ca.uky.edu/entomology/entfacts/ef608.asp.
Biosecurity New Zealand, 2006. Varroa bee mite found in Nelson. http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/media/16-06-06/varroa.htm
Boecking O, Bienefeld K, Drescher W, 2000. Heritability of the Varroa-specific hygienic behaviour in honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 117(6):417-424.
Bowen-Walker PL, Gunn A, 2001. The effect of the ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor on adult worker honeybee (Apis mellifera) emergence weights, water, protein, carbohydrate, and lipid levels. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 101(3):207-217.
Boyce WM, Rubin ES, O'Brien CS, 2002. A scientific note on the distribution of Africanized honey bees and Varroa destructor in feral honey bee populations in California. Apidologie, 33(6):581-582.
Buza L, 1978. Control of Varroa disease in Hungary. Apiacta, 13:176-177.
Calatayud F, Verdú MJ, 1993. Hive debris counts in honeybee colonies: a method to estimate the size of small populations and rate of growth of the mite Varroa jacobsoni Oud. (Mesostigmata: Varroidae). Experimental & Applied Acarology, 17(12):889-894.
Chantawannakul P, Ward L, Boonham N, Brown M, 2006. A scientific note on the detection of honey bee viruses using real-time PCR (TaqMan) in Varroa mites collected from a Thai honey bee (Apis mellifera) apiary. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 91(1):69-73.
Chen YP, Higgins JA, Feldlaufer MF, 2005. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR analysis of deformed wing virus infection in the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.). Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71(1):436-441.
Chen YP, Pettis JS, Evans JD, Kramer M, Feldlaufer MF, 2004. Transmission of Kashmir bee virus by the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor. Apidologie, 35(4):441-448. http://www.edpsciences.org/journal/index.cfm?edpsname=apido
Cobey S, 2001. The Varroa species complex: identifying Varroa destructor and new strategies of control. American Bee Journal, 141(3):194-196.
Cornuet JM, Beaumont MA, Estoup A, Solignac M, 2006. Inference on microsatellite mutation processes in the invasive mite, Varroa destructor, using reversible jump Markov chain Monte Carlo. Theoretical Population Biology, 69(2):129-144. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WXD-4HF5K9J-2&_user=10&_coverDate=03%2F31%2F2006&_rdoc=4&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%237156%232006%23999309997%23615547%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=7156&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=12&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=424713f730f41bf2d89e0f929b095089
Crane E, 1979. Fresh news on the Varroa mite. Bee World, 608:8.
Crane E, 1999. The world history of beekeeping and honey hunting. New York, USA: Routledge, 704 pp.
Cromroy HL, 1984. The Asian honey bee mite, a new threat to American beekeepers. USA: Florida Extension Service, 4 pp.
Cunningham SA, FitzGibbon F, Heard TA, 2002. The future of pollinators for Australian agriculture. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 53(8):893-900.
Danka RG, Harris JW, Villalobos E, Glenn T, 2012. Varroa destructor resistance of honey bees in Hawaii, USA, with different genetic proportions of Varroa Sensitive Hygiene (VSH). Journal of Apicultural Research, 51(3):288-290. http://www.ibra.org.uk
Degrandi-Hoffman G, Curry R, 2005. The population dynamics of varroa mites in honey bee colonies: Part I - The VARROAPOP program. American Bee Journal, 145(7):592-595.
Delaplane KS, 2001. Varroa destructor: revolution in the Making. Bee World, 82(4):157-159.
Delfinado MD, 1963. Mites of the honey bee in Southeast-Asia. Journal of Apicultural Research, 2:113-114.
Delfinado MD, Baker EW, 1974. Varroidae, a new family of mites on honey bees (Mesostigmata: Acarina). Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 64(1):4-10.
Delfinado-Baker M, 1984. The nymphal stages and male of Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans a parasite of honey bees. International Journal of Acarology, 10(2):75-80.
Denmark HA, Cromroy HL, Cutts L, Sanford MT, 2000. Featured Creatures. USA: University of Florida. http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/misc/bees/Varroa_mite.htm.
Dietemann V, Nazzi F, Martin SJ, Anderson DL, Locke B, Delaplane KS, Wauquiez Q, Tannahill C, Frey E, Ziegelmann B, Rosenkranz P, Ellis JD, 2013. Standard methods for varroa research. Journal of Apicultural Research, 52(1):unpaginated. http://www.ibra.org.uk/categories/JAR-Archive-tables-of-contents
Dimetry NZ, El-Wahab TEA, Zakaria ME, 2005. Effective control of varroa mite Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman infesting honey bee colonies Apis mellifera L. by some natural products. Bulletin of Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, 56(2):295-308.
Donovan BJ, Paul F, 2005. Pseudoscorions: the forgotten beneficials inside beehives and their potential for management for control of Varroa and other arthropod pests. Bee World, 86(4):83-87.
Donovan BJ, Paul F, 2006. Pseudoscorpions to the rescue? American Bee Journal, 146(10):867-869.
Drijfhout FP, Kochansky J, Lin S, Calderone NW, 2005. Components of honey bee royal jelly as deterrents of the parasitic Varroa mite, Varroa destructor. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 31(8):1747-1764.
Ehara S, 1968. On two mites of economic importance in Japan (Arachnida : Acarina). Applied Entomology and Zoology, 3(3):124-129 pp.
Elzen PJ, Westervelt D, 2002. Detection of coumaphos resistance in Varroa destructor in Florida. American Bee Journal, 142(4):291-292.
Fera, 2010. Managing Varroa. Sand Hutton, UK: Food and Environment Research Agency, Defra., 38 pp. https://secure.fera.defra.gov.uk/beebase/downloadDocument.cfm?id=16
Flores Serrano JM, Ruíz JA, Afonso Pires SM, 2002. Accessment of the population of Varroa destructor based on its collection from boards at the bottoms of hives of Apis mellifera iberica. (Avaliação da população de ácaros Varroa destructor a partir da sua recolha nos estrados de colmeias de Apis mellifera iberica.) Revista Portuguesa de Ciências Veterinárias, 97(544):193-196.
Fries I, Hansen H, Imdorf A, Rosenkranz P, 2003. Swarming in honey bees (Apis mellifera) and Varroa destructor population development in Sweden. Apidologie, 34(4):389-397.
Goodwin RM, Taylor MA, McBrydie HM, Cox HM, 2005. Base levels of resistance to common control compounds by a New Zealand population of Varroa destructor. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 33(4):347-352.
Grabensteiner E, Nowotny N, 2001. Virus infections of the honey bee (Apis mellifera). Wiener Tierarztliche Monatsschrift, 88(3):79-87.
Greatti M, 2005. Control of varroa in Friuli Venezia Giulia. (Il controllo della varroa in Friuli Venezia Giulia.) Notiziario ERSA, 18(1):43-47.
Harbo JR, Harris JW, 2004. Effect of screen floors on populations of honey bees and parasitic mites (Varroa destructor). Journal of Apicultural Research, 43(3):114-117.
Harris JW, Rinderer TE, 2004. Varroa resistance of hybrid ARS Russian honey bees. American Bee Journal, 144(10):797-800.
Hassan AR, Mohamed AA, 2003. Studies on some factors affecting Varroa mite reproduction. Shashpa, 10(2):115-122.
Haïfa Boudagga, Naima Barbouche, Asma Laârif, Hamouda MHB, 2003. Morphological identification of the Varroa species (Acari: Varroidae) colonizing Tunisian apiaries. Systematic and Applied Acarology, 8:97-100.
Hinojosa A, González D, 2004. Prevalence of parasites in Apis mellifera L. in beehives of the dry coast and interior of the VI Region, Chile. (Prevalencia de parásitos en Apis mellifera L en colmenares del secano costero e interior de la VI Región, Chile.) Parasitología Latinoamericana, 59(3/4):137-141.
Hu FL, Zhu W, Li YH, 2005. Use of essential oils for controlling Varroa destructor in honey bee colonies. Chinese Bulletin of Entomology, 42(4):375-378.
ISSG, 2011. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD). Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission. http://www.issg.org/database
Jn Pierre L, 2008. Mitigating the Threat of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular Caribbean (Saint Lucia). Report to CABI. 56 pp.
Kanbar G, Engels W, 2005. Communal use of integumental wounds in honey bee (Apis mellifera) pupae multiply infested by the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor. Genetics and Molecular Research, 4(3):465-472. http://www.funpecrp.com.br/gmr/year2005/vol3-4/gmr0160_full_text.htm
Kanbar G, Engels W, Nicholson GJ, Hertle R, Winkelmann G, 2004. Tyramine functions as a toxin in honey bee larvae during Varroa-transmitted infection by Melissococcus pluton. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 234(1):149-154.
Kanga LHB, James RR, Boucias DG, 2003. Hirsutella thompsonii and Metarhizium anisopliae as potential microbial control agents of Varroa destructor, a honey bee parasite. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 81(3):175-184.
Kanga LHB, Jones WA, Gracia C, 2006. Efficacy of strips coated with Metarhizium anisopliae for control of Varroa destructor (Acari: Varroidae) in honey bee colonies in Texas and Florida. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 40(3/4):249-258. http://www.springerlink.com/content/t872555225604872/?p=c16b12bcb25546489b580093f1ce2988&pi=7
Kanga LHB, Jones WA, James RR, 2003. Field trials using the fungal pathogen, Metarhizium anisopliae [Deuteromycetes: Hyphomycetes] to control the ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor (Acari: Varroidae) in honey bee, Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) colonies. Journal of Economic Entomology, 96(4):1091-1099.
Kevan PG, Laverty TM, Denmark HA, 1990. Association of Varroa jacobsoni with organisms other than honey bees and implications for its dispersal. Bee World, 7:119-121.
Kokkinis M, Liakos V, 2004. Population dynamics of Varroa destructor in colonies of Apis mellifera macedonica in Greece. Journal of Apicultural Research, 43(4):150-154.
Lach L, Picker MD, Colville JF, Allsopp MH, Griffiths CL, 2002. Alien invertebrate animals in South Africa. In: Biological invasions: economic and environmental costs of alien plant, animal, and microbe species [ed. by Pimentel D] Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press Inc., 267-282.
Laigo FM, Morse RA, 1969. Control of the bee mites, Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans and Tropilaelaps clareae Delfinado and Baker with cholorobenzilate. Philippine Entomologist, 1:144-148.
Lodesani M, 2004. Control strategies of varroa mites. (Strategie di lotta alla varroatosi delle api.) Parassitologia (Roma), 46(1/2):277-279.
Macedo PA, Ellis MD, Siegfried BD, 2002. Detection and quantification of fluvalinate restance in Varroa mites in Nebraska. American Bee Journal, 142(7):523-526.
Manrique AJ, Soares AEE, 2004. Relation between propolis production and varroas (Varroa destructor) rate of infestation in Africanized honeybees (Apis mellifera) in Brazil. (Relación entre la producción de propóleos y la tasa de infestación de varroas (Varroa destructor) en abejas africanizadas (Apis mellifera) en Brasil.) Zootecnia Tropical, 22(3):289-297.
Marin M, 1978. World spread of Varroa disease. Apiacta, 13(4):163-166.
Mazzone P, Caprio E, Cringoli G, 2004. Varroa mites in the apiaries of Campania Region. (Presenza e diffusione di Varroa negli alveari della Campania.) Parassitologia (Roma), 46(1/2):281-284.
McMillan D, 2005. Apicultural exotic disease surveillance report. Surveillance (Wellington), 32(4):9-10.
Medina Medina L, Martin SJ, Espinosa-Montaño L, Ratnieks FLW, 2002. Reproduction of Varroa destructor in worker brood of Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera). Experimental and Applied Acarology, 27(1/2):79-88.
Montiel JC, Piola GA, 1976. A new enemy of bees. Campo Moderno and Chacra. In: Varroasis, a honey bee disease [ed. by Campo Moderno, Chacra] Bucharest, Romania: Apimondia Publishing House, 36-37.
Moretto G, Leonidas Jde M, 2003. Infestation and distribution of the mite Varroa destructor in colonies of Africanized bees. Brazilian Journal of Biology, 63(1):83-86.
Nadir Alloui, Boucherit MR, Ferhat Nouicer, 2002. Effect of flumethrine on Varroa destructor in honeybee colonies. Bulletin of the Veterinary Institute in Pulawy, 46(2):233-237.
Neira CM, Heinsohn PP, Carrillo L R, Báez M A, Fuentealba A J, 2004. The effect of lavender and laurel essential oils on Varroa destructor Anderson & Truemann (Acari:Varroidae). (Efecto de aceites esenciales de lavanda y laurel sobre el ácaro Varroa destructor Anderson & Truemann (Acari: Varroidae).) Agricultura Técnica, 64(3):238-244.
OIE, 2009. World Animal Health Information Database - Version: 1.4. World Animal Health Information Database. Paris, France: World Organisation for Animal Health. http://www.oie.int
OIE, 2011. Varroosis of honey bees. Terrestrial Animal Health Code (chapter 9.6). OIE. http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Health_standards/tahc/2010/en_chapitre_1.9.6.htm
Ongus JR, 2006. Varroa destructor virus 1: a new picorna-like virus in Varroa mites as well as honey bees. Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen Universiteit (Wageningen University), v + 126 pp.
Orosi-Pal Z, 1975. Varroa in America. Mehezet, 23:123.
Oudemans AC, 1904. On a new genus and species of parasitic acari. Leyden Museum, 24:216-222.
Parrella G, Caprio E, Mazzone P, 2004. Viruses threatening Italian apiculture. (Le virosi minacciano l'apicoltura italiana.) Informatore Agrario, 60(29):55-56.
Peng CYS, Zhou XS, Kaya HK, 2003. Virulence and site of infection of the fungus, Hirsutella thompsonii, to the honey bee ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 81(3):185-195.
Pettis JS, 2004. A scientific note on Varroa destructor resistance to coumaphos in the United States. Apidologie, 35(1):91-92.
Pettis JS, Jadczak T, 2005. Detecting coumaphos resistance in Varroa mites. American Bee Journal, 145(12):967-970.
Phadke KG, Bisht DS, Sinha RBP, 1966. Occurrence of mite Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans in the brood cells of honey bee, Apis indica F. [in India]. Indian Journal of Entomology, 28(pt. 3):411-412 pp.
Popa A, 1980. Agriculture in Lebanon. American Bee Journal, 120:336-367.
Principal J, D'Aubeterre R, Graterol Z, 2004. Prevalence of Varroa destructor in Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera scutellata Lepeletier) in Lara State, Venezuela. In: Proceedings of the 8th IBRA International Conference on Tropical Bees and VI Encontro sobre Abelhas, Ribeirão Preto, Brasil, 6-10 September, 2004 [ed. by Hartfelder KH, Jong D de, Pereira RA, Santos Cristino A dos, Morais MM, Tanaka ED, Lourenco AP, Silva JEB da, Almeida GF de, Nascimento AM do], 347-350.
Rahmani H, Kamali K, Saboori A, Nowzari J, 2006. Report and survey of morphometric characteristics of Varroa destructor (Acari:Varroidae) collected from honey bees in Tehran Province, Iran. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology, 8(4):351-355. http://www.modares.ac.ir/jast
Ritter W, 1981. Varroa disease of the honey bee Apis mellifera. Bee World, 62:141-153.
Ruttner F, 1977. Interim report on the course of Varroa infection. (Zwischenbericht uber den Verlauf des Varroa-Befalls.) Biene, 113(9):353-354.
Rycke PH de, Joubert JJ, Hosseinian SH, Jacobs FJ, 2002. The possible role of Varroa destructor in the spreading of American foulbrood among apiaries. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 27(4):313-318.
Sammataro D, Ostiguy N, Frazier M, 2002. How to use a PSU/ IPM Varroa board. Amer. Bee J. 142:363-366.
Sammataro D, Untalan P, Guerrero F, Finley J, 2005. The resistance of varroa mites (Acari: Varroidae) to acaricides and the presence of esterase. International Journal of Acarology, 31(1):67-74.
Samsinak K, Haragsim O, 1972. The mite Varroa jacobsoni imported into Europe. (Roztoc Varroa jacobsoni Oudem. zavlecen do Evropy.) Vcelarstvi, 25(12):268-269.
Sanford MT, 1997. A history of Varroa mite in Florida, with discussion of controls. APIS. http://apis.ufl.edu/threads/Varroa.htm
Sanford MT, 2001. Introduction, spread and economic impact of Varroa mites in North America. In: Mites of the Honey Bee Hamilton/Illinois, USA: Dadant & Sons, 149-162.
Sanford MT, Demark HA, Cromroy HL, Cutts L, 2007. Featured Creatures: Varroa mite. Featured Creatures: Varroa mite. USA: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Science. http://creatures.ifas.ufl.edu/misc/bees/Varroa_mite.htm
Santas LA, 1979. Problems of honey bee colonies in Greece. Apiacta, 14:127-313.
Seeley TD, 2007. Honey bees of the Arnot Forest: a population of feral colonies persisting with Varroa destructor in the northeastern United States. Apidologie, 38(1):19-29. http://www.edpsciences.org/journal/index.cfm?edpsname=apido
Shaw KE, Davidson G, Clark SJ, Ball BV, Pell JK, Chandler D, Sunderland KD, 2002. Laboratory bioassays to assess the pathogenicity of mitosporic fungi to Varroa destructor (Acari: Mesostigmata), an ectoparasitic mite of the honey bee, Apis mellifera. Biological Control, 24(3):266-276.
Solignac M, Cornuet JM, Vautrin D, Conte Y le, Anderson D, Evans J, Cros-Arteil S, Navajas M, 2005. The invasive Korea and Japan types of Varroa destructor, ectoparasitic mites of the Western honeybee (Apis mellifera), are two partly isolated clones. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 272(1561):411-419. http://www.pubs.royalsoc.ac.uk/proc_bio_homepage.shtml
Stephen WA, 1968. Mites: a beekeeping problem in Vietnam and India. Bee World, 49(3):119-120 pp.
Stevenson MA, Benard H, Bolger P, Morris RS, Martin W, Durr P, 2005. Spatial epidemiology of the Asian honey bee mite (Varroa destructor) in the North Island of New Zealand. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 71(3-4):241-252.
Tentcheva D, Gauthier L, Zappulla N, Dainat B, Cousserans F, Colin ME, Bergoin M, 2004. Prevalence and seasonal variations of six bee viruses in Apis mellifera L. and Varroa destructor mite populations in France. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70(12):7185-7191.
Thompson HM, Brown MA, Ball RF, Bew MH, 2002. First report of Varroa destructor resistance to pyrethroids in the UK. Apidologie, 33(4):357-366.
Tian ZS, 1967. The disease or bees caused by the mite Varroa jacobsoni. Monop Kvahaiboi Karpo, 4:30-31.
Todd J, Ball B, Miranda Jde, 2004. Identifying the viruses causing mortality of honey bees in colonies infested with Varroa destructor. Surveillance (Wellington), 31(4):22-25.
Tsagou V, Lianou A, Lazarakis D, Emmanouel N, Aggelis G, 2004. Newly isolated bacterial strains belonging to Bacillaceae (Bacillus sp.) and Micrococcaceae accelerate death of the honey bee mite, Varroa destructor (V. jacobsoni), in laboratory assays. Biotechnology Letters, 26(6):529-532. http://ipsapp009.kluweronline.com/IPS/content/ext/x/J/4540/I/138/A/13/abstract.htm
Tzien-He I, 1965. The biological peculiarities of the acarine mite Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans. Kounchong Zhishi, 9:40-41.
University of Hawaii Honeybee Project, 2014. The UH Honeybee Project. Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii. http://www.uhbeeproject.com/
Velitchkov V, Natchev P, 1973. Investigation about the Varroa jacobsoni disease - Oud. in Bulgaria. In: Proceedings of the XXIV International Apiculture Congress, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 375-377.
Veselý V, 2005. Varroasis in bees in the Czech Republic. (Varroáza vcel v Ceské republice.) Veterinárství, 55(7):452-453.
Villa JD, 2004. Swarming behaviour of honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in Southeastern Louisiana. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 97(1):111-116.
Wallner K, Fries I, 2003. Control of the mite Varroa destructor in honey bee colonies. Pesticide Outlook, 14(2):80-84.
Warrit N, Hagen TAR, Smith DR, Çakmak I, 2004. A survey of Varroa destructor strains on Apis mellifera in Turkey. Journal of Apicultural Research, 43(4):190-191.
Warrit N, Smith DR, Lekprayoon C, 2006. Genetic subpopulations of Varroa mites and their Apis cerana hosts in Thailand. Apidologie, 37(1):19-30.
Zhang ZQ, 2000. Notes on Varroa destructor (Acari: Varroidae) parasitic on honey bees in New Zealand. Systematic and Applied Acarology Special Publications, 5:9-14.
Zhou Ting, Anderson DL, Huang ZY, Huang SX, Yao J, Ken Tan, Zhang QingWen, 2004. Identification of Varroa mites (Acari: Varroidae) infesting Apis cerana and Apis mellifera in China. Apidologie, 35:645-654.
Çakmak I, Aydin L, Camazine S, Wells H, 2002. Pollen traps and walnut-leaf smoke for Varroa control. American Bee Journal, 142(5):367-370.
Çakmak I, Aydin L, Gulegen E, Wells H, 2003. Varroa (Varroa destructor) and tracheal mite (Acarapis woodi) incidence in the Republic of Turkey. Journal of Apicultural Research, 42(4):57-60.
Çakmak I, Aydin L, Qulegen AE, 2002. Honey bee pest and disease survey in the Southern Marmara region of Turkey. In: Bees without frontiers, Sixth European Bee Conference, Cardiff, UK, 1-5 July, 2002, 46-49.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
Copyright © CABI. CABI is a registered EU trademark. This article is published under a Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
History
Published online: 21 May 2008
Language
English
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
SCITE_
Citations
Export citation
Select the format you want to export the citations of this publication.
EXPORT CITATIONSExport Citation
View Options
View options
Login Options
Check if you access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.