Pluchea indica (Indian camphorweed)
Datasheet Types: Invasive species, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Pluchea indica covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Pluchea indica (L.) Less.
- Preferred Common Name
- Indian camphorweed
- Other Scientific Names
- Baccharis indica L.
- Conyza corymbosa Roxb.
- Conyza foliolosa Wall. Ex DC.
- Conyza indica (L.) Blunme ex DC.
- Erigeron denticulatus Burm. F.
- International Common Names
- EnglishIndian camphorweedIndian fleabane
- Local Common Names
- Indian pluchea
- Chinakuo bao ju
- Indonesiabeluntaslamutasilenabou
- Japanhiiragi-giku
- Malaysiabeluntas
- Thailandkhluu
- Vietnamlú’c cây
Pictures
Habit near water
Pluchea indica (Indian camphorweed); invasive habit near water. Kanaha Beach canal, Maui, Hawaii. August 18, 2001.
©Forest & Kim Starr Images - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Pluchea indica (Indian camphorweed); habit at Mokolii, Oahu, Hawaii. April 19, 2005.
©Forest & Kim Starr Images - CC BY 4.0
Leaves and flowers
Pluchea indica (Indian camphorweed); leaves and flowers. Kanaha Beach, Maui, Hawaii. February 06, 2001.
©Forest & Kim Starr Images - CC BY 4.0
Leaf and stem specimen
Pluchea indica (Indian camphorweed); leaf and stem specimen. Maui, Hawaii. April 05, 2006.
©Forest & Kim Starr Images - CC BY 4.0
Control measures
Pluchea indica (Indian camphorweed); control measures. Removal with EEWF crew. Kanaha Beach, Maui. January 08, 2002
©Forest & Kim Starr Images - CC BY 4.0
Summary of Invasiveness
P. indica is a widely-branching shrub, native to much of Asia, India and northern Australia. It has not proved invasive in its native area but has become invasive in many of the territories to which it has been introduced in the Pacific. It is particularly troublesome in Hawaii, where Holm et al. (1979) rated it as ‘serious’ (the highest category). PIER (2012) indicates a range of other Pacific islands on which it is described as invasive, and indicates a Risk Assessment Score for the Pacific region of 11, which is ‘high’. The problems from P. indica arise mainly in natural vegetation where its vigorous shrubby growth tends to dominate and threaten native species. In Hawaii it “displaces forages in coastal pastures and natives in marshes and saline areas [and] destroys habitat of water birds” (Motooka et al., 2003).
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
This plant was named by Linnaeus as Baccharis indica in 1753. It was moved into the genus Pluchea by Lessing in 1831 and although it has been included in Conyza by some authors, there are no currently used alternatives to Pluchea indica. Pluchea x fosbergii is a hybrid of P. indica x P. odorata, which naturally occurs in Guam (Flora of Guam, 2012).
Plant Type
Perennial
Broadleaved
Seed propagated
Shrub
Woody
Description
P. indica is an erect, much-branched shrub growing 1-2 m in height. Branches are shortly hairy when young, later glabrous. Leaves are bright pale green, papery and almost glabrous, obovate, up to 8 cm long, 2-4 cm wide, the margins toothed, and the leaves aromatic when crushed. The base is cuneate and almost sessile. The inflorescence comprises an almost corymbose, compact cluster of heads, each having many ray florets, only a few disc florets, subtended by an involucre of 3-7 series of deltoid bracts. Each head about 6-7 mm long, 5 mm broad on a peduncle 0-10 mm long. Individual ray florets with corolla 3-5 mm long; disc florets, 2-7, have a 5-lobed purple corolla. In fruit the reddish-brown achene, 1 mm long, 0.3 mm wide, has 5-7 ribs, and a white pappus of up to 20 bristles, about 5 mm long.
Distribution
P. indica is native to Asia, from India eastwards to China and the Philippines, and to northern Australia, but it has been introduced and become naturalised on many Pacific Ocean islands, and become invasive on several.
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
P. indica was first collected in Hawaii in 1915 (Motooka et al., 2003). No other records of the date of introduction elsewhere have been found.
Introductions
| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Hawaii | 1915 | No | No | First collected | ||||
Risk of Introduction
Although P. indica is widely used as a natural medicine in its native area, it is not widely traded for this or any other purpose. Nor is there obvious risk of accidental introduction. Hence the risk of introduction should not be high.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
Natural dispersal is by wind-blown seed.
Accidental Introduction
No clear record.
Intentional introduction
No record.
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wind (pathway vector) | Natural dispersion of seed | Yes |
Hosts/Species Affected
Pasture is affected in Hawaii (Motooka et al., 2003). Native vegetation, especially in coastal saline situations, may also be affected.
Growth Stages
Seedling stage
Vegetative growing stage
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
The closely related P. carolinensis, also a serious invasive weed in Hawaii, is distinguished by being more densely furry and the leaves thinner, petiolate, almost entire, and with 20-25 central disk florets compared with only 2-7 in P. indica (Flora of China, 2012).
Habitat
P. indica occurs in lowland riparian zones, wetland, coastal brackish marshes and other saline areas, mangroves and tidal flats. It is occasionally found inland in forested areas but the species does not tolerate dense shade.
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brackish | Inland saline areas | Principal habitat | ||
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Principal habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat | ||
| Littoral | Coastal dunes | Principal habitat | ||
| Littoral | Mangroves | Secondary/tolerated habitat | ||
| Littoral | Mud flats | Principal habitat | ||
| Littoral | Salt marshes | Principal habitat |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
Chromosome number varies; Missouri Botanical Garden (2012) refers to counts of 2n = 20, 30 and 60.
Reproductive Biology
P. indica spreads by seed. No information has been seen on germination requirements.
Longevity
PIER (2012) refers to the seeds as ‘probably having short viability’.
Environmental Requirements
P. indica is adapted to wet, saline conditions but can also occur inland on normal soils. It is a plant of open or lightly shaded conditions but does not tolerate deep shade. It tolerates conditions equivalent to USDA zones 9b to 11, i.e. with minimum temperatures down to -4°C (USDA-NRCS, 2012).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 28 | 25 |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Winter
Bimodal
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > medium
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil drainage > impeded
Soil drainage > seasonally waterlogged
Special soil tolerances > saline
Special soil tolerances > infertile
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
The scale insect, Coccus viridis, damages P. indica in Hawaii but this effect is reduced by the protective attention of the ant Pheidole megacephala (Bach, 1991).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coccus viridis (soft green scale) | Predator | Whole plant |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Negative |
Impact: Economic
There is no detail available on economic damage, but Holm et al. (1979) classify it as a ‘serious’ weed of crops in Hawaii, and Motooka et al. (2003) note that it replaces forage species in coastal pastures in Hawaii and presumably reduces livestock productivity.
Impact: Environmental
P. indica is classed as invasive across many Pacific islands, especially Hawaii and this is believed to be mainly for its displacement of native vegetation, especially in marshes and saline areas (Motooka et al., 2003). In addition, it destroys the habitat of water birds (Motooka et al., 2003). In Hawaii, Holm et al. (1979) rated it as ‘serious’ threat and PIER (2012) indicate a Risk Assessment Score for the Pacific region of 11, which is ‘high’.
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Highly mobile locally
Long lived
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Impact outcomes
Negatively impacts agriculture
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - shading
Likelihood of entry/control
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Uses
P. indica is used as a table salad in Malaysia (Mohd Nazri et al., 2011) and as a vegetable in Indonesia (Andarwulan et al., 2010).
USDA-ARS (2012) refers to a wide range of traditional uses for P. indica in dysentery, fever, gangrene, lumbago, obesity, leucorrhea, myosis, smallpox, sores and wounds; and as an astringent, diaphoretic or tonic. It is also used as a tea.
In India, P. indica is known for its anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, anti-pyretic, hypoglycemic, diuretic and anti-microbial activities besides many other pharmacological activities. Compounds with activity against Entamoeba histolytica have been confirmed (Ria Biswas et al., 2007). Also in India, extracts of P. indica roots exhibited significant hepatoprotective activity against experimentally induced liver damage by carbon tetrachloride in rats and mice (Sen et al., 2002).
In Malaysia, a study confirmed that there is some basis for the local use of P. indica extracts to alleviate symptoms of tuberculosis (Suriyati Mohamad et al., 2011). Other work in Malaysia concludes that it has potential medicinal properties that can be further developed to produce neutraceutical products, diet supplements or cosmetic products (Normala et al., 2011).
The hot water extract of P. indica leaves contains a source of antioxidants and inhibitors of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 production that can be used as dietary supplements with good health promoting effects in Thailand (Srisook et al., 2012). High antioxidant activity apparently associated with high phenolic content has also been measured in Malaysia (Mohd Shukri et al., 2011; Mohd Nazri et al., 2011) and in India (Sanchita Ghosh et al., 2008) and associated with high flavonoids in Indonesia (Andarwulan et al., 2010).
Results of tests against a range of bacteria suggest the possibility of using P. indica as an alternative therapy in the treatment of urinary tract infections (Sittiwet, 2009) and for treatment of dysentery (Pramanik and Chatterjee, 2008).
Studies in India suggest that β-sitosterol and stigmasterol contained in P. indica may play an important role, along with antiserum, in neutralizing snake venom-induced actions (Gomes et al., 2007).
In Indonesia, P. indica leaf meal added into a diet for chickens at the level of 2% significantly increased final body weight, body weight gain, feed and water intake, and decreased feed conversion ratio and was also able to decrease the cholesterol content of broiler meat up to 8% (Sudarman et al., 2011). A level of 10% reduced stress in broiler chickens (Sudarman et al., 2012).
Pot experiments in Malaysia suggested that P. indica could be useful for phyto-remediation in multi-metal contaminated soil (Majid et al., 2012).
Uses List
Environmental > Boundary, barrier or support
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Vegetable
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical Control
There is no rhizome system, so it may presumably be readily controlled by suitable cultivation where soil conditions allow, but these would not be feasible in wetland situations.
Biological Control
There is no record of any attempt at biological control.
Chemical Control
Motooka et al. (2003) indicate that it is susceptible to 2,4-D and related herbicides, and to glyphosate.
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
There is a serious lack of available information on many aspects of the biology and control of P. indica, in particular its germination requirements, its phenology, and control methods.
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
References
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Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2012. Flora of China Web. Cambridge, USA: Harvard University Herbaria. http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/
Flora of Guam, 2012. Flora of Guam. Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii. http://www.herbarium.hawaii.edu/efloras/guam/index.php
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Gomes A, Saha A, Chatterjee I, Chakravarty AK, 2007. Viper and cobra venom neutralization by ss-sitosterol and stigmasterol isolated from the root extract of Pluchea indica Less. (Asteraceae). Phytomedicine, 14(9):637-643.
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Majid NM, Islam MM, Yumarnis Riasmi, Arifin Abdu, 2012. Assessment of heavy metal uptake and translocation by Pluchea indica L. from sawdust sludge contaminated soil. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, 10(2 part 2):849-855. http://www.isfae.org/scientificjournal.php
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Published online: 3 December 2012
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