Dichrostachys cinerea (sickle bush)
Datasheet Types: Invasive species, Tree, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Dichrostachys cinerea covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Management, Genetics and Breeding, Economics, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn.
- Preferred Common Name
- sickle bush
- Other Scientific Names
- Cailliea cinerea (L.) Macbr.
- Cailliea dichrostachys (Pers.) Guill. et al.
- Cailliea glomerata (Forssk.) Macbr.
- Cailliea nutans (Pers.) Skeels
- Cailliea platycarpa (Welw. ex Bull) Macbr.
- Dichrostachys arborea N. E. Br.
- Dichrostachys glomerata (Forssk.) Chiov.
- Dichrostachys nutans (Pers.) Benth.
- Dichrostachys platycarpa Welw. ex Bull
- Mimosa cinerea L.
- Mimosa glomerata Forssk.
- Mimosa nutans Pers.
- International Common Names
- EnglishChinese latern treemarabu thornmazabu
- Spanishmazabu
- Frenchacacia saint dominguemimosa clochette
- Local Common Names
- Burkina Fasoagarofkurkur
- Cape Verdeespinho cachupaspinho cachupa
- Cubamarabumarabú
- GermanyKalahari-Weihnachtsbaum
- Indiabilatrimarultodataresegum-kativadatallaveltuvelturavidattalaivurtuliwadu
- Maligilikintirigi
- Nigerd'und'u
- Nigeriad'und'u
- Senegalbourrim'buurintirigipatroulahisebsinke
- South AfricaKalahari Christmas treesekelbostassels for the chief's hat
- Sudankakada
- EPPO code
- DIRCA (Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. africana)
- EPPO code
- DIRCI (Dichrostachys cinerea)
- EPPO code
- DIRCN (Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. nyassana)
- EPPO code
- DIRNU (Dichrostachys nutans)
- Subspecies
- Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. africana
- Subspecies
- Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. argillicola
- Subspecies
- Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. burmana
- Subspecies
- Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. cinerea
- Subspecies
- Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. forbesii
- Subspecies
- Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. keniensis
- Subspecies
- Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. malesiana
- Subspecies
- Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. nyassana
- Subspecies
- Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. platycarpa
Pictures
Tree habit
South-western Zimbabwe.
Chris Fagg, Depto. Ecologia, Univ. Brasilia
Branch
A cluster of immature indehiscent pods, spiny shoots and leaves of D. cinerea near Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.
Chris Fagg, Depto. Ecologia, Univ. Brasilia
Mature pods
A cluster of dark mature pods which are sought by game and livestock in south-western Zimbabwe.
Chris Fagg, Depto. Ecologia, Univ. Brasilia
Inflorescence
Chris Fagg, Depto. Ecologia, Univ. Brasilia
Overview
Importance
D. cinerea is a highly variable thorny shrub or small tree, widely distributed in the seasonally dry tropics of Africa, Asia and Australia. It is easy to propagate from seed or suckers, and is resistant to frost, drought and fire. It has the ability to fix nitrogen and coppices well, so is suitable for use in soil conservation and silvopastoral systems and is a popular fodder tree. D. cinerea produces only small amounts of (very hard and durable) wood, which is used for fuelwood, fences, woodware and charcoal. It is occasionally used as an ornamental, e.g. in Israel and Thailand, and in Africa it is used medicinally. D. cinerea can become an aggressive colonizer, forming impenetrable thickets on badly-managed pasture lands, especially in Caribbean, Pacific and Indian Ocean islands where it is a highly invasive species.
Summary of Invasiveness
D. cinerea is a fast growing tree that has become an undesirable weed and is particularly a problem in areas where there has been overgrazing. In the areas were it invades the species form very dense thickets making areas impenetrable. The species can regenerate from the smallest amount of root or through its root suckers. The seeds can survive for long periods of time in the soil as well as being able to withstand moderate frost. In Cuba, the use of mechanical control methods has been successful in reducing the area covered by D. cinerea, however, it is still a major problem in the country. As of yet there are no biocontrol agents being used although potential agents have been identified. Mechanical and chemical control are currently the most efficient control measures.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The generic name Dichrostachys means 'two-coloured spike' and refers to the flowers, and the specific name 'cinerea' is from the Greek 'konis' and Latin 'cineres', referring to the grey hairs on the subspecies confined to India. The species is most commonly known as the 'sickle bush' derived from the curved shape of the pods. It has several common names, for example in South Africa it is called the 'Kalahari Christmas tree' and sometimes called the 'tassels for the chief's hat' (World Agroforestry Centre, 2004).
Plant Type
Perennial
Broadleaved
Seed propagated
Tree
Shrub
Woody
Description
D. cinerea is a highly variable thorny shrub or small tree to 8 m tall though often smaller. The bark on young branches is green and densely to sparsely puberulous, and on the older branches is dark-grey brown and longitudinally fissured. The branches have strong alternate lateral shoots to 8 cm long appearing as thorns that may have leaves at the base. Leaves are bipinnate, 4-8 cm long with 2-11 (5-15) pairs of pinnae, each one with 12-22 pairs of leaflets, linear, obtuse to acute, straight to incurved, 2.5-4 (-6) mm long, 0.8-1.5 mm wide, ciliolate, otherwise glabrous. Leaf axes puberulous to minutely pilose, sometimes with red hairlets, especially near base of pinnae; glands peg-like at base of pinnae pairs. When in flower, D. cinerea is characterized by the bicoloured inflorescence that is pink in the upper part and yellow in the lower part. The upper flowers are sterile with protruding staminodes and the lower flowers are hermaphroditic with 1 pistil and 10 yellow stamens each. Inflorescence spicate, solitary on a bracteate, short shoot, 6-9 cm long including the glabrous to puberulous peduncle. The pods are dark-brown and twisted in form in clusters, narrowly oblong, variously curved and/or coiled, 5-7 cm long, 8-15 mm wide, blackish, glabrous. Seeds biconvex, elliptic to subcircular, 4 mm long, 2-4 mm wide, pale tan, glossy; pleurogram elliptic (Cowan, 1998). Fruits ripen between March to May in Indonesia and May to September in South Africa (World Agroforestry Centre, 2005).
Botanical Features
D. cinerea is a highly variable thorny shrub or small tree to 8 m tall though often smaller. The bark on young branches is green and densely to sparsely puberulous, and on the older branches is dark-grey brown and longitudinally fissured. The branches have strong alternate lateral shoots to 8 cm long appearing as thorns that may have leaves at the base. Leaves are bipinnate, 4-8 cm long with 2-11 (5-15) pairs of pinnae, each one with 12-22 pairs of leaflets, linear, obtuse to acute, straight to incurved, 2.5-4 (-6) mm long, 0.8-1.5 mm wide, ciliolate, otherwise glabrous. Leaf axes puberulous to minutely pilose, sometimes with red hairlets, especially near base of pinnae; glands peg-like at base of pinnae pairs. When in flower, D. cinerea is characterized by the bicoloured inflorescence that is pink in the upper part and yellow in the lower part. The upper flowers are sterile with protruding staminodes and the lower flowers are hermophroditic with 1 pistil and 10 yellow stamens each. Inflorescence spicate, solitary on a bracteate, short shoot, 6-9 cm long including the glabrous to puberulous peduncle. The pods are dark-brown and twisted in form in clusters, narrowly oblong, variously curved and/or coiled, 5-7 cm long, 8-15 mm wide, blackish, glabrous. Seeds biconvex, elliptic to subcircular, 4 mm long, 2-4 mm wide, pale tan, glossy; pleurogram elliptic (Cowan, 1998). Fruits ripen between March to May in Indonesia and May to September in South Africa (World Agroforestry Centre, 2004).
Distribution
D. cinerea has a wide natural distribution ranging from southern and tropical Africa to India (PIER, 1999), although the true native range of D. cinerea is not easy to determine as the literature sources contradict one another as to whether the species is an exotic which has naturalized or a native species in particular countries. For example, the species is thought to be native to the Northern Territory, Australia, however Cowan (1998) suggests that it naturalized there. In India D. cinerea occurs in dry deciduous forests. It is widespread in the Sudan zone and southern Sahel of Africa where it forms dense hammocks, in the Kalahari and Transvaal of southern Africa and in East Africa to Somalia and Yemen (von Maydell, 1986).
Review of Natural Distribution
D. cinerea has a wide natural distribution ranging from southern and tropical Africa to India (PIER, 1999), although the true native range of D. cinerea is not easy to determine as the literature sources contradict one another as to whether the species is an exotic which has naturalized or a native species in particular countries. For example, the species is thought to be native to the Northern Territory, Australia, however Cowan (1998) suggests that it naturalized there. In India D. cinerea occurs in dry deciduous forests. It is widespread in the Sudan zone and southern Sahel of Africa where it forms dense hammocks, in the Kalahari and Transvaal of southern Africa and in East Africa to Somalia and Yemen (von Maydell, 1986).
Location of Introductions
D. cinerea has been widely introduced around the world, mainly as an ornamental or for erosion control. It was introduced in the West Indies during the 1800s, to Cuba, Hispaniola, Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante and Martinique (Fournet, 2004). D. cinerea was first introduced to Cuba as an ornamental from Madagascar (Moyroud, 2000). Seeds were thought to have been carried to Florida, USA by a hurricane as it was first recorded along the coast around Lower Keys in 1998 after Hurricane Georges (Moyroud, 2000). Zimmermann and Klein (2004) report that D. cinerea has become naturalized in the USA but is not yet regarded as a weed. It is probably more widespread than indicated in the distribution list.
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
D. cinerea has been widely introduced around the world, mainly as an ornamental or for erosion control. It was introduced in the West Indies during the 1800s, to Cuba, Hispaniola, Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante and Martinique (Fournet, 2004). D. cinerea was first introduced to Cuba as an ornamental from Madagascar (Moyroud, 2000). Seeds were thought to have been carried to Florida, USA by a hurricane as it was first recorded along the coast around Lower Keys in 1998 after Hurricane Georges (Moyroud, 2000). Zimmermann and Klein (2004) report that D. cinerea has become naturalized in the USA but is not yet regarded as a weed. It is probably more widespread than indicated in the distribution list.
Risk of Introduction
Reporting of invasiveness in this species has been focused on the situation in Cuba where it is a serious weed. Nevertheless it has a wide range as an introduced species and it is possible that following a time lag, further reports of invasive behavior may arise. Future introductions should take the Cuban situation into account when performing risk assessments.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Seeds may be dispersed by wind and water. The pods of D. cinerea are eaten by a number of animals including cattle, camels and game (World Agroforestry Centre, 2005). In South Africa, animals that feed on the pods include giraffe, buffalo, kudu, impala and Nyala (Cooke, 1998), and seeds may also be carried in the hooves of cattle (PIER, 1999).
Habitat
D. cinerea is found in a variety of habitats, and is widely distributed in the seasonally dry tropics of Africa, Asia and Australia. In India, D. cinerea occurs in dry deciduous forests, in Sengal and Sudan it occurs on lateritic soils, in Malaysia in areas with strong seasonal climates (World Agroforestry Centre, 2005) and in Australia it is known to grow on poor soils (PIER, 1999).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
GeneticsSeveral subspecies are recorded, and noting its very wide native range, large morphological variations are to be expected. However, no breeding has been undertaken, even for ornamental, less invasive varieties.Physiology and PhenologyD. cinerea is a long-lived, fast growing tree. Seeds can be produced by young trees (Fournet, 2004). D. cinerea has prolific root suckers and can regenerate from very small root cuttings. It can produce 130 new stems from root suckers within a 15 m radius from the main trunk over 10 years (World Agroforestry Centre, 2005). It is fire resistant.D. cinerea flowers between September to June in Indonesia and from October to February in south Africa and fruits ripen between March to May in Indonesia and May to September in South Africa (World Agroforestry Centre, 2005). D. cinerea is propagated easily by seeds or cuttings. Seeds are orthodox, approximately 39,000 seeds/kg, and require pretreatment before sowing as for other legumes, i.e. soaking in hot water or manual scarification. Vegetative propagation may be achieved via root or shoot cuttings, or by severing and transplanting root suckers.Reproductive BiologyLarge numbers of seeds are produced almost all year long (Fournet, 2004). Polyembryony has been observed in the seeds (World Agroforestry Centre, 2005). In the inflorescences, the terminal lower flowers are hermaphroditic and the upper flowers of a hanging spike are sterile Environmental RequirementsD. cinerea is widely distributed in the seasonally dry tropics on a range of soil types including saline and infertile soils. Mean annual temperatures where D. cinerea grows are 15-27°C, but also tolerating mean monthly temperatures as high as 38°C and an absolute minimum temperature of 0°C. Mean annual rainfall ranges are 200-1400 mm, with dry season durations of 4-10 months. It is known to occur from sea level in coastal areas up to 2000 m altitude in Ethiopia (von Maydell, 1986).
Climate
D. cinerea is widely distributed in the seasonally dry tropics of Africa, Asia and Australia and in Malaysia in areas with strong seasonal climates.
Soil and Physiography
D. cinerea is found in a variety of habitats. In Senegal and Sudan it occurs on lateritic soils (Maydell, 1986; World Agroforestry Centre, 2004). In Australia it is known to grow on poor soils (PIER, 1999). It is known to occur from sea level in coastal areas up to 2000 m altitude in Ethiopia (von Maydell, 1986).
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 32 | -30 | 0 | 2000 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute minimum temperature | -2 | 0 |
| Mean annual temperature | 15 | 27 |
| Mean maximum temperature of hottest month | 16 | 38 |
| Mean minimum temperature of coldest month | 6 | 15 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | 4 | 10 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
| Mean annual rainfall | 200 | 1400 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Bimodal
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture > heavy
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil drainage > free
Soil drainage > seasonally waterlogged
Special soil tolerances > saline
Special soil tolerances > infertile
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
Evans (1999) reported that the rust fungus, Uredo deformis, has been observed on D. cinerea in Sri Lanka. Other known natural enemies are the insects Ctenoplusia albostriata and Kerria lacca.
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Animal/plant collections | None |
| Animal/plant products | None |
| Biodiversity (generally) | None |
| Crop production | None |
| Environment (generally) | None |
| Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
| Forestry production | Negative |
| Human health | Positive |
| Livestock production | Negative |
| Native fauna | None |
| Native flora | Negative |
| Rare/protected species | None |
| Tourism | None |
| Trade/international relations | None |
| Transport/travel | None |
Impact
In its younger stage D. cinerea can grow in very dense and impenetrable thickets. Due to its thorns it can make areas inaccessible for both humans and livestock (Hernández, 2002). It is costly to control as it involves frequent management. It can cause losses in agricultural production (Fournet, 2004). In Cuba in 1996 the amount of unusable land was enough pasture for two million head of cattle. D. cinerea can also become a problem in forest plantations for example in Cuba where it needs to be controlled in order to carry out any necessary maintenance. Control is expensive at US$100 -150 per hectare (Hernández, 2002).
Impact: Environmental
In its younger stage D. cinerea can grow in very dense and impenetrable thickets. In Cuba, D. cinerea has displaced native plant communities (Moyroud, 2000).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Highly mobile locally
Has high reproductive potential
Impact outcomes
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts tourism
Reduced amenity values
Reduced native biodiversity
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Produces spines, thorns or burrs
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
D. cinerea has a number of land and environmental uses for example in agroforestry, soil improvement, revegetation, land reclamation, soil conservation, erosion control, hedging and live fencing. It has been used for the stabilization of sand dunes and in soil conservation. It is also used to improve soils, for example along the riverbanks in the Sahel (World Agroforestry Centre, 2005). A main use, however, and a reason for introduction has been its perceived value as an ornamental hedging plant with its attractive pink and yellow flowers. Such uses are limited, however, because of its root competition, profuse suckering and aggressive weedy character.The wood is very heavy and dark; the heartwood is dark brown and sapwood is light brown or yellow with dark streaks (von Maydell, 1986). It is considered to be termite resitant and has been used for a wide range of purposes including round wood, posts, exterior fittings, fences, though its utilization is limited by the scarcity of suitable dimensions and is more commonly used for walking sticks, tool handles, spears, etc. (von Maydell, 1986). The wood is most commonly used as a fuel or for making charcoal. It has a high calorific value, burns slowly and is sought after as a preferred source of fuel.Non-wood uses include gums, lac, fodder, dyestuffs, bark products, fibres, honey and medicinal products. Debarked roots are used for strong weaving work such as baskets and racks, and bark fibres for various apllications (Maydell, 1986). Leaves and seeds are edible but are commonly sought after by livestock and are considered very nutritious. The bark, roots and leaves are all used for a number of medicinal purposes for example to treat headaches, toothaches, stings, sore eyes, leprosy, epilepsy and as a diuretic (World Agroforestry Centre, 2005), and to treat snakebites, elephantitis and other internal parasitic worms, syphilis and gonorrhoea (von Maydell, 1986).
Uses: Wood Uses
The wood is very heavy and dark; the heartwood is dark brown and sapwood is light brown or yellow with dark streaks (von Maydell, 1986). It is considered to be termite resitant and has been used for a wide range of purposes including round wood, posts, exterior fittings, fences, though its utilization is limited by the scarcity of suitable dimensions and is more commonly used for walking sticks, tool handles, spears, etc. (von Maydell, 1986). The wood is most commonly used as a fuel or for making charcoal. It has a high calorific value, burns slowly and is sought after as a preferred source of fuel.
Uses: Non-Wood Uses
Non-wood uses include gums, lac, fodder, dyestuffs, bark products, fibres, honey and medicinal products. Debarked roots are used for strong weaving work such as baskets and racks, and bark fibres for various apllications (Maydell, 1986). Leaves and seeds are edible but are commonly soufgt after by livestock and are considered very nutritious. The bark, roots and leaves are all used for a number of medicinal purposes for example to treat headaches, toothaches, stings, sore eyes, leprosy, epilepsy and as a diuretic (World Agroforestry Centre, 2004), and to treat snakebites, elephantitis and other internal parasitic worms, syphilis and gonorrhoea (von Maydell, 1986).
Uses: Land Uses
D. cinerea has a number of land and environmental uses for example in agroforestry, soil improvement, revegetation, land reclamation, soil conservation, erosion control, hedging and live fencing. It has been used for the stabilization of sand dunes and in soil conservation. It is also used to improve soils, for example along the riverbanks in the Sahel (World Agroforestry Centre, 2004). A main use, however, and a reason for introduction has been its perceived value as an ornamental hedging plant with its attractive pink and yellow flowers. Such uses are limited, however, because of its root competition, profuse suckering and aggressive weedy character.
Uses List
Environmental > Agroforestry
Environmental > Boundary, barrier or support
Environmental > Erosion control or dune stabilization
Environmental > Revegetation
Environmental > Soil improvement
Materials > Dye/tanning
Materials > Gum/resin
Materials > Miscellaneous materials
Materials > Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Fuels > Charcoal
Fuels > Fuelwood
Human food and beverage > Honey/honey flora
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Fodder/animal feed
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Invertebrate food for lac/wax insects
Wood Products
Charcoal
Roundwood > Posts
Sawn or hewn building timbers > Exterior fittings
Sawn or hewn building timbers > Fences
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
The control of D. cinerea as a weed with methods such as cutting and burning is not recommended as the seeds can survive in the soil (Fournet, 2004), though mechanical control methods have been suggested as a control measure by World Agroforestry Centre (2005). A rust fungus, Uredo deformis has been identified in Sri Lanka as a potential biocontrol agent (Evans, 1999).
Silviculture Characteristics
D. cinerea is a long-lived, fast growing tree. Seeds can be produced by young trees (Fournet, 2004). D. cinerea has prolific root suckers and can regenerate from very small root cuttings. It can produce 130 new stems from root suckers within a 15 m radius from the main trunk over 10 years. Large numbers of seeds are produced almost all year long (Fournet, 2004). Polyembryony has been observed in the seeds (World Agroforestry Centre, 2004). Seeds may be dispersed by wind and water. The pods of D. cinerea are eaten by a number of animals including cattle, camels and game (World Agroforestry Centre, 2004). In South Africa, animals that feed on the pods include giraffe, buffalo, kudu, impala and Nyala (Cooke, 1998), and seeds may also be carried in the hooves of cattle (PIER, 1999). It is fire resistant.In its younger stage D. cinerea can grow in very dense and impenetrable thickets. In Cuba, D. cinerea has displaced native plant communities (Moyroud, 2000).
Silviculture Characteristics
Tolerates > drought
Tolerates > fire
Tolerates > wind
Tolerates > shade
Tolerates > frost
Tolerates > termites
Ability to > sucker
Ability to > fix nitrogen
Ability to > regenerate rapidly
Ability to > coppice
Silviculture Practice
Seed storage > orthodox
Vegetative propagation by > cuttings
Stand establishment using > natural regeneration
Stand establishment using > direct sowing
Stand establishment using > planting stock
Management
D. cinerea is propagated easily by seeds or cuttings. Seeds are orthodox, approximately 39,000 seeds/kg, and require pretreatment before sowing as for other legumes, i.e. soaking in hot water or manual scarification. Vegetative propagation may be achieved via root or shoot cuttings, or by severing and transplanting root suckers.Most interest in the management of D. cinerea, however, is for its control as an invasive weed than than its cultivation. The control of D. cinerea as a weed with methods such as cutting and burning is not recommended as the seeds can survive in the soil (Fournet, 2004), though mechanical control methods have been suggested as a control measure by World Agroforestry Centre (2004). A rust fungus, Uredo deformis has been identified in Sri Lanka as a potential biocontrol agent (Evans, 1999).In its younger stage D. cinerea can grow in very dense and impenetrable thickets. Due to its thorns it can make areas inaccessible for both humans and livestock (Hernández, 2002). It is costly to control as it involves frequent management. It can cause losses in agricultural production (Fournet, 2004). In Cuba in 1996 the amount of unusable land was enough pasture for two million head of cattle. D. cinerea can also become a problem in forest plantations for example in Cuba where it needs to be controlled in order to carry out any necessary maintenance. Control is expensive at US$100 -$150 per ha (Hernández, 2002). D. cinerea is a fast growing tree that has become an undesirable weed and is particularly a problem in areas where there has been overgrazing. In the areas were it invades the species form very dense thickets making areas impenetrable. The species can regenerate from the smallest amount of root or through its root suckers. The seeds can survive for long periods of time in the soil as well as being able to withstand moderate frost. In Cuba, the use of mechanical control methods has been successful in reducing the area covered by D. cinerea, however, it is still a major problem in the country. As of yet there are no biocontrol agents being used although potential agents have been identified. echanical and chemical control are currently the most efficient control measures.
Genetic Resources and Breeding
Several subspecies are recorded, and noting its very wide native range, large morphological variations are to be expected. However, no breeding has been undertaken, even for ornamental, less invasive varieties.
Disadvantages
D. cinerea is a fast growing woody species which causes problems in particular in agricultural and distubed areas. D. cinerea can become an aggressive colonizer, forming impenetrable thickets on badly-managed pasture lands. The species has been reported as a problematic species native in the North West Province, South Africa. It encroaches on agricultural land and can cause a reduction in the grazing capacity (Meyer et al., 2004). It has now become the most problematic invasive species in Cuba, covering almost 800,000 ha and leaving many areas unproductive. A policy has been introduced to try and control D. cinerea and so far a reduction has been seen in the percentage of the country's grazing area affected. In 1996, 47% (1.1 million ha) of fields had been invaded and by 2000 this had reduced to 30% (789,500 ha). It is still a major problem in Cuba and the government has introduced incentives to those people who are willing to help to control it (Hernández, 2002).
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
References
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