Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry)
Datasheet Types: Crop, Tree, Invasive species, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Eugenia uniflora covers Identity, Overview, Associated Diseases, Pests or Pathogens, Distribution, Dispersal, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Management, Genetics and Breeding, Food Quality, Economics, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Eugenia uniflora L.
- Preferred Common Name
- Surinam cherry
- Other Scientific Names
- Eugenia brasiliana (L.) Aubl.
- Eugenia costata Cambess.
- Eugenia indica Nicheli
- Eugenia lacustris Barb. Rodr.
- Eugenia michelii Lam.
- Eugenia microphylla Barb. Rodr.
- Eugenia myrtifolia Salisb.
- Eugenia parkeriana DC.
- Myrtus brasiliana L.
- Plinia pendunculata L.f.
- Plinia rubra L.
- Stenocalyx affinis O. Berg
- Stenocalyx brunneus O. Berg
- Stenocalyx dasyblastus O. Berg
- Stenocalyx glaber O. Berg
- Stenocalyx impunctatus O. Berg
- Stenocalyx lucidus O. Berg
- Stenocalyx michelii (Lam.) O. Berg
- Stenocalyx nhampiri Barb. Rodr.
- Stenocalyx strigosus O. Berg
- Stenocalyx uniflorus (L.) Kausel
- International Common Names
- EnglishBarbados cherryBrazil cherrycayenne cherryFlorida cherryFrench cherrypitangared Brazil cherry
- Spanishcerezo de cayenapitanga
- Frenchcerise coteléecerise créolecerise de cayennecerisier carrécerisier de cayenneroussaille
- Portugueseginjapitanga do notre
- Local Common Names
- Argentinanagapirynangapiri
- Brazilpitangapitanga mulatapitanga roxapitanga-da-praiapitangueira vermelhavermelha
- Chinahong guo zi
- Colombiacereza quadrada
- Cook Islandsmenemenevenevene
- El Salvadorguinda
- GermanyCayennekirschePitangaSurinam KirschmyrteSurinamkirsche
- Guadeloupecerese a cotescerese-cotes
- Indonesiaceremai belandadewandaru
- Netherlandskerseboom, Surinaamse
- Niuekafikakafika papalangikarifa palangi
- Samoavine
- Surinamemonkie monkie kirsieSurinaamsche kershzoete kers
- Swedenkorsbarsmyrten
- Thailandmayom-farang
- Tongapomikanite
- Venezuelapendanga
- EPPO code
- EUEUN (Eugenia uniflora)
Pictures
Habit with Laysan albatross chicks
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry, pitanga); habit in Laysan albatross colony. Cable Company buildings Sand Island, Midway Atoll. June, 2008.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2008 - CC BY 3.0
Habit with Laysan albatross chicks
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry, pitanga); habit with Laysan albatross chicks. Cable Company buildings Sand Island, Midway Atoll. June, 2008.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2008 - CC BY 3.0
Leaves
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry, pitanga); leaves. Kula Ace Hardware and Nursery, Maui, Hawaii, USA. September, 2007.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2007 - CC BY 3.0
Trunk and bark
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry, pitanga); trunk and bark. Cable Company buildings Sand Island, Midway Atoll.June, 2008.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2008 - CC BY 3.0
Leaves and flower buds
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry, pitanga); leaves and flower buds. Haiku, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February, 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Flowers and young red leaves
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry, pitanga); flowers and young red leaves. Cable Company buildings Sand Island, Midway Atoll. June, 2008.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2008 - CC BY 3.0
Flowers
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry, pitanga); flowers. Cable Company buildings Sand Island, Midway Atoll.June, 2008.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2008 - CC BY 3.0
Fruiting habit
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry, pitanga); fruiting habit. Lanai City, Maui County, Hawai, USA. April, 2007.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2007 - CC BY 3.0
Fruit and foliage
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry, pitanga); fruit and foliage. Garden of Eden Keanae, Maui, Hawaii, USA. March, 2011.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2011 - CC BY 3.0
Seedling
Eugenia uniflora (Surinam cherry, pitanga); seedling. John Prince Park Lake Worth, Florida, USA. September, 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Overview
Eugenia uniflora L. (Myrtaceae) is an evergreen shrub 2-4 m tall or a small, multi-trunked tree reaching 7-10 m. The fruit is a succulent, pendulous berry, 2-4 cm in diameter, depressed-globose, conspicuously 8-ribbed. When mature, it turns from green to yellow then orange and finally a dark red to wine-red or dark purplish-maroon when ripe. The fruit flesh is soft, juicy, and of aromatic sub-acid flavour. E. uniflora is native to central and eastern areas of South America, specifically to Uruguay, Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, and Argentina, although there are a few regions that produce this fruit commercially. It has been widely introduced as a valuable fruit tree throughout the tropical and sub-tropical Americas, and also in many parts of Africa, Asia and the Pacific. In the USA, it is grown in California, Hawaii and Florida, mainly as a living fence or hedge, or as a garden or backyard plant. E. uniflora is most commonly propagated by seed although vegetative propagation of selected varieties has been successful. Yields per tree tend to be relatively low as compared to other fruit trees, in the range of 2.5 to 3.6 kg per plant. The fruit is non climacteric and responds well to refrigerated storage at temperatures around 8-10°C allowing a fairly good shelf life and modified atmospheres can be used to improve shelf life further. The fruit can be eaten fresh or used to make juice, jam, ice cream and liquor, among other products. The exotic flavour and high vitamin content together with carotenoid, anthocyanin and phenolic contents provide a good source of health-promoting antioxidants.
Principal sources: Duarte and Paull (2015)
Summary of Invasiveness
E. uniflora is a South American tree, widely introduced for its valuable fruit and as an ornamental plant, adaptable, fast growing, especially in rich, well-drained soils, forming dense thickets that crowd out native regeneration. Seeds in the sweet and attractive fruit are spread by birds and small mammals, and it has become invasive in several areas around the world. It is notably invasive in Florida, Bermuda and the Bahamas where it has formed dense thickets crowding out native species. It is also reported as invasive in Queensland, Australia and many Pacific islands including Hawaii, and also in the Indian Ocean in Mauritius and Reunion.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Eugenia uniflora L. (Myrtaceae) is the most widely known of the many species of Eugenia that have edible fruit. E. uniflora is named Surinam cherry, pitanga, Brazilian cherry and Florida cherry in English. Pitanga, the name given by the Tupi Indians, is used in Brazil. Many synonyms exist for Eugenia uniflora L. in the older literature and include Stenocalyx michelii Berg, Stenocalyx lucidus O. Berg, Eugenia costata Cambess., Myrtus brasiliana L., Eugenia michelii Lam. and Plinia rubra Veil (Duarte and Paull, 2015).
A number of edible small fruits of limited commercial importance occur within the genus Eugenia including Eugenia uvalha Camb. (ubaia), Eugenia aggregata Kiaersk (cherry of the Rio Grande), Eugenia dombeyi Skeels (grumichama) and Eugenia luschnathiana Klotzsch (pitomba) (Martin et al., 1987). All of these related species are native to Brazil and are distributed to some extent throughout tropical America (Janick and Paull, 2008).
Plant Type
Perennial
Broadleaved
Seed propagated
Tree
Shrub
Woody
Description
General description
E. uniflora is an evergreen shrub 2-4 m tall or a small, multi-trunked tree to 7 m, occasionally to 10 m depending on site, with spreading, slender, sometimes crooked branches.
Leaves
Young leaves are notably pink to bronze or dark red, turning shiny dark green above, paler below when mature but turning red in cold, dry weather. Leaves are opposite, simple, ovate or narrowly ovate to lanceolate, 2.5-6(-8) cm long and 1.5-3 cm wide, with 7-9 pairs of lateral veins and margins entire or slightly and irregularly wavy. Leaf bases are rounded or slightly cordate, apex obtuse to shortly acuminate, glabrous, glossy, and pellucidly dotted. Petioles are 1-3 mm long.
Flowers
Flowers are creamy white, fragrant, (1-)1.5-3 cm across, solitary or in clusters of 2-3(-4) at leaf axils, with slender peduncles, small bracts, a 4-lobed tubular calyx, 8-ribbed, with lobes 3-4 mm long, petals 4, white, thin, obovate and fugacious, with about 50-60 prominent white stamens with yellow anthers, 0.7-1.1 cm long, with a slightly ridged ovary. ). Flowering occurs on the previous season’s growth or the basal part of the current season’s shoots (Verheij and Coronel, 1992, Janick and Paull, 2008).
Fruit
The fruit is a succulent, pendulous berry, 2-4 cm in diameter, depressed-globose, conspicuously 8-ribbed, commonly containing 1-3 seeds, though it can have a single large seed or up to 7 small seeds. When mature, the fruit turns from green to yellow then orange and finally a dark red to wine-red or dark purplish-maroon when ripe. The peel is very thin and delicate. The pulp, the same colour as the peel, is aromatic, juicy and sweet or sour-sweet, and often has a resinous flavour that is not so appealing. The pulp represents about 60-65% of the total weight. The time from anthesis to ripening is around 40 days and overripe fruit will drop fairly soon after the full-ripe stage (Villachica et al., 1996). Birds and mammals disperse the seeds (Duarte and Paull, 2015).
Distribution
E. uniflora is native to central and eastern areas of South America, specifically to Uruguay, Paraguay, Brazil (Minas Gerais, Parana, Rio Grande do Sul, Rio de Janeiro, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo), Bolivia (La Paz, Santa Cruz, Tarija), and Argentina (Catamarca, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Rios, Formosa, Jujuy, Misiones, Salta, Santa Fe, Tucuman) (USDA-ARS, 2013). In Brazil, it grows wild along stream banks and at forest edges (Lorenzi, 1992). It is also mistakenly considered by some authors (e.g. Morton, 1987; Rifai, 1992) as native to northern South America, Guyana, Surinam and French Guiana and the north-east of Brazil, which has also tended to be repeated by other sources (e.g. Janick and Paull, 2008). The common names also appear to confuse people regarding its native range, as it is known as Surinam cherry, Barbados cherry and even Florida cherry.
It has been widely introduced as a valuable fruit tree throughout the tropical and sub-tropical Americas, and also in many parts of Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Rifai (1992) stated that it was grown all over the tropics and subtropics, though it is rare in South-East Asia (Java, Peninsular Malaysia and the Philippines). It was also reported as introduced to the Mediterranean basin, including southern Europe and northern Africa (Morton, 1987), though records from such countries are very rare. In the USA, it is grown in California, Hawaii and Florida, mainly as a living fence or hedge, or as a garden or backyard plant (Duarte and Paull, 2015)
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Being seen as a valuable fruit tree, it was introduced from its native range early on in colonial history, and there are several detailed accounts of its introduction and spread that are of interest.
An undated report by the Government of Bermuda (2014) stated that E. uniflora was listed in an 1790 account of the produce grown in Bermuda and therefore it must have been introduced before this date. A mature tree was also listed in an inventory of trees in Orange Valley, Devonshire, Bermuda in 1840. E. uniflora naturalized quickly, spreading slowing from gardens into surrounding forest until 1900 when starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) arrived in Bermuda. The seed in the centre of the fruit is more than 1 cm in diameter which meant that the smaller native birds could not swallow them; however, the larger starling could eat the fruit and spread the seeds. Then, when much of the island’s native cedar forest was denuded following an epidemic of cedar scale in the 1940s, E. uniflora began to dominate large areas of cleared land. Its spread in Bermuda was then further accelerated in 1957 by the introduction of another large bird, the great kiskadee (Pitangus sulphuratus).
In Florida, USA, E. uniflora was introduced as a fruit tree, an ornamental and a hedge tree before 1931, being widely planted in central and south Florida. It was noted by several authors as escaping cultivation and invading hammocks in these areas 40 years later, as early as 1971 (Langeland and Burks, 1998), becoming a target of eradication by park managers by 1995.
It was first reported to have been introduced to Israel in 1922 (Morton, 1987). It was also reported as introduced elsewhere in the Mediterranean basin including southern Europe and northern Africa (Morton, 1987), though records from such countries are very rare.
Risk of Introduction
E. uniflora is valued for its fruit and ornamental value and as such, further intentional introduction is likely. However, the species received a high risk score of 12 in a risk assessment for the Pacific region (PIER, 2013), indicating the dangers posed by further introduction of E. uniflora.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Most local distribution of E. uniflora is by birds spreading the seeds after eating the sweet, bright-coloured and attractive fruits. Plants are visited daily by birds during the fruiting season, and the fruits are probably also eaten by small mammals (Langeland and Burks, 1998).
Long distance movement of E. uniflora is through the intentional introduction of trees, for its fruit and for its use as an ornamental species. It has also been identified as a potential seed contaminant (USDA-ARS, 2013).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Digestion and excretion (pathway cause) | Yes | |||
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Yes | |||
| Hedges and windbreaks (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Landscape improvement (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Nursery trade (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes |
Plant Trade
| Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| True seeds (inc. grain) |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
In Florida, E. uniflora can appear similar to native Eugenia species. However, it can usually be differentiated by the distinct odour given off by E. uniflora leaves when crushed in the hand (Langeland et al., 2011).
Habitat
E. uniflora is commonly found along riverbanks, in forests and forest edges and also in coastal scrub (PIER, 2013). The species is highly adaptable, however and can grow in most terrestrial habitats in suitable climates. There are variable reports, however, regarding tolerance to areas liable to flooding, waterlogging, saline soils or persistent salt spray. In Florida and in the Bahamas it is found invading disturbed hammocks and is also considered weedy in cultivated landscapes, natural areas, including national wildlife refuges and rare scrub habitat (Langeland and Burks, 1998). In Queensland, Australia, E. uniflora is becoming a weed of rainforests, open woodlands, forest margins, urban bushland, gardens, roadsides and riparian vegetation (Biosecurity Queensland, 2011).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | ||||
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Reproductive Biology
E. uniflora is most commonly propagated by seed, though seed must be sowed immediately as they only remain viable for a few weeks and tend not to germinate if stored for more than a month. Germination generally occurs in 3-4 weeks. Vegetative propagation of selected varieties has also been used successfully with layering or grafting.
Physiology and Phenology
E. uniflora is variously described as a fast growing species (e.g. PIER, 2013) or moderately fast (Langeland and Burks, 1998), but is also reported to grow slowly in early establishment (Rifai, 1992). Flowering and fruiting may start from when plants are as young as two years old under the most favourable circumstances, but usually starts when the shrubs or small trees are 5-6 years old, or up to 10 years old in unfavourable sites (Morton, 1987). Flowering occurs on the growth from the previous season or on the basal part of shoots of the current season. The fruit then develops and ripens very quickly, which can occur in as little as three weeks after anthesis.
The duration of flowering and fruiting is dependent upon local climate, varying from almost continuous, to several extended periods in a year, or a single period of up to two months (Rifai, 1992). In Florida, USA, E. uniflora flowers and fruits mostly in spring (March to May), and depending on site there may be a second crop in the autumn (Langeland and Burks, 1998). In Israel, it also produces fruit in May, a period when few other tree species are producing fruit, though yields tend to be low (Morton, 1987). Yields per tree tend to be relatively low in any case as compared to other fruit trees, in the range of 2.5 to 3.6 kg per plant (Morton, 1987; Janick and Paull, 2008).
Associations
Almost a century ago in Bermuda, E. uniflora trees were being cut down by landowners because it was being observed that their presence encouraged the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata), which was an agricultural pest on the island at that time (Britton, 1918, in Langeland and Burks, 1998). The tree is also known as a general host for the Mediterranean fruit fly in Florida (Langeland and Burks, 1998).
Stricker and Stiling (2012) used invasive E. uniflora to test the enemy release hypothesis in Florida, USA, i.e. that plant populations are regulated by coevolved enemies in their native range but are relieved of this pressure where their enemies have not been co-introduced. Insecticide was used to exclude species of insect herbivores from invasive E. uniflora and two native co-occurring species of Eugenia in the field for two years. Herbivore damage, plant growth, survival, and population growth rates for the three species were assessed. The results however contradicted the enemy release hypothesis as E. uniflora sustained more herbivore damage than the native species which had reduced survival, plant height and population growth. In addition, most damage to E. uniflora was due to the weevil Myllocerus undatus recently introduced from Sri Lanka. M. undatus was observed to attack E. uniflora foliage significantly more than the leaves of the native species. This interaction is particularly interesting because M. undatus and E. uniflora share no co-evolutionary history, having arisen on two separate continents and come into contact on a third Stricker and Stiling (2012).
Environmental Requirements
It is a tropical and sub-tropical species preferring moister climates. However, reports of more exacting environmental requirements are quite variable from author to author. Rifai (1992) report that E. uniflora thrives in full sun and requires only moderate rainfall, withstanding long dry seasons. However, PIER (2013) stated that it tends to grow better in rich, moist but well-drained soils, and partial shade. In Florida, USA, Langeland and Burks (1998) described E. uniflora as adaptable to all soil conditions not subject to flooding and with some salt tolerance, and Rifai (1992) reported that it grows in almost any type of soil and withstands temporary waterlogging, but that it is intolerant of salt.
In its native range in South America, it inhabits areas of warm temperate climates with both wet and dry summers as well as areas with no dry season, with average annual rainfall in the range of 500-2000 mm, and average temperatures of 20-35ºC in the southern hemisphere summer in January, and 10-30ºC in July. It has proved to be more tolerant where introduced, and Rifai (1992) reported that E. uniflora is rather cold-tolerant and will stand several degrees of frost unharmed, whereas Langeland and Burks (1998) stated that E. uniflora freezes at about -1°C in Florida.
It is mostly a lowland species, commonly found from sea level up to 250 m attitude. It is also found up to 750 m in Hawaii (PIER, 2013), up to 1000 m in the Philippines, rarely up to 1500 m (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2013), and even to 1800 m in Guatemala (Rifai, 1992).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| B - Dry (arid and semi-arid) | < 860mm precipitation annually | Tolerated | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Preferred | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Preferred | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Preferred |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute minimum temperature | -1 | |
| Mean maximum temperature of hottest month | 20 | 35 |
| Mean minimum temperature of coldest month | 10 | 30 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | 0 | 5 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
| Mean annual rainfall | 500 | 2000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Winter
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture > heavy
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil reaction > alkaline
Soil drainage > free
Special soil tolerances > shallow
Special soil tolerances > saline
Special soil tolerances > sodic
Notes on Pests
Although relatively disease-free, a number of diseases have been reported to attack E. uniflora including several leaf spots (Cercospora eugeniae, Helminthosporium sp., and Phyllosticta eugeniae), shoot and root dieback (Rhizoctonia solani, Clitocybe tabescens) and fruit rot (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides [Glomerella cingulata]).
E. uniflora fruits are susceptible to fruit fly infestation (Anastrepha sp. and Ceratitis sp.). The most important problem in Brazil is the beetle Costalimaita ferruginea that attacks the foliage and can cause up to 40% defoliation (Villachica et al., 1996). The larvae of Oiketicus kirbyi can damage the plants and occasionally an unidentified root-feeding larva can be a problem. Plants are also attacked by scales and caterpillars (Verheij and Coronel, 1992, Duarte and Paull, 2015). Almost a century ago in Bermuda, E. uniflora trees were being cut down by landowners because it was observed that their presence encouraged the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata), which was an agricultural pest on the island at that time (Britton, 1918, in Langeland and Burks, 1998). The tree is also known as a general host for the Mediterranean fruit fly in Florida (Langeland and Burks, 1998).
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
In Florida, USA, E. uniflora foliage is attacked by the weevil Myllocerus undatus that was reported by Stricker and Stiling (2012) to have been introduced from Sri Lanka only a few years previously. This paper also discusses the interesting observation that M. undatus and E. uniflora share no co-evolutionary history, having arisen on two separate continents and come into contact on a third (Stricker and Stiling, 2012).
A number of pests and diseases have been reported as affecting E. uniflora, including leaf-spot, thread blight, anthracnose, twig dieback and root rot. The fruit are also attractive to fruit flies, scale insects and caterpillars (Rifai, 1992).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Myllocerus undatus | Predator | Whole plant |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Cultural/amenity | Positive |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive |
| Environment (generally) | Negative |
| Human health | Positive |
Impact: Economic
In the early 1990s, the Florida Nurserymen and Growers Association (FNGA) and the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council (FLEPPC) asked nurseries to stop the production of 45 potentially invasive plant species that were relatively insignificant in the ornamental horticulture market (Wirth et al., 2004). E. uniflora was not included as it was one of 14 additional species designated as invasive by the FLEPPC, but which the nurseries wanted to continue production of for their high economic value as they are highly ornamental and very widely used in landscaping. A survey indicated that incomes to nurseries of these 14 species across Florida were estimated at US$45 million in 2001, with $34 million from in-state sales and $11 million from sales to out-of-state markets (Wirth et al., 2004). These sales were estimated to translate into combined economic output impacts of $59 million and employment impacts of 800 jobs for Florida's economy. However, it was argued that these estimated impacts should not be seen as equal to the expected loss if these species were phased out, because if one species is not available consumers are likely to buy another species (Wirth et al., 2004).
Despite this intervention, by the late 1990s E. uniflora was still commonly used in gardens in Florida, particularly as a tree or shrub for hedging (Langeland and Burks, 1998).
As a fruit tree, E. uniflora is either planted at spacings of 3-4 m, or in rows 5 m apart and 1-2 m between plants within the row (Rifai, 1992). Plants are most productive if left unpruned for a number of years, and fruiting is promoted by application of fertilizers and fruit development responds positively to irrigation (Rifai, 1992).
Impact: Environmental
E. uniflora forms dense thickets that displace native plants and prevents their regeneration, replacing native species, reducing the amount of light that reaches the forest floor, and changing the micro-environment of invaded habitats (Biosecurity Queensland, 2011; PIER, 2013).
Stricker and Stiling (2013) found that the emergence, survival and growth of E. uniflora seedlings in Florida, USA, was higher than that of two native Eugenia species, supporting predictions that invasive E. uniflora may possess a competitive advantage. Their study also suggested that measurements of such traits may be useful in determining the likelihood of invasion by newly introduced woody plant species (Stricker and Stiling, 2013).
Impact: Social
When bruised, crushed or cut, the leaves and branches have a spicy resinous fragrance, which can cause respiratory discomfort in susceptible individuals.
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Tolerant of shade
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Has high genetic variability
Impact outcomes
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Increases vulnerability to invasions
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission
Interaction with other invasive species
Rapid growth
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
E. uniflora is mainly grown for its edible fruit which is consumed fresh or conserved as jam, a relish or by pickling in vinegar. Fruit flesh contains 0.8-1% protein, 0.4-0.8% fat, 8-12% carbohydrates, 0.3-0.6% fibre, and 0.3-0.5% ash. The vitamin C content is 20-30 mg/100 g and the energy value is 190 kJ/100 g (Rifai, 1992). Fruit juice is 85-90% water but due to the sugar content it can be fermented into a wine, which can then also be processed into vinegar. Furthermore, in Brazil, the fermented juice is also sometimes distilled to produce an alcoholic spirit (Rifai, 1992). The uses, economic and nutritional value and health benefits of E. uniflora fruit, postharvest physiology and handling practices, quality control and processing are described in detail by Vizzotto et al. (2011).
Plant parts also have a number of other more minor uses. The bark contains 20-28% tannin and can be processed and used to treat leather.
A strong-smelling essential oil is obtained from crushing and distilling the foliage, containing citronellal, geranyl acetate, geraniol, cineole, terpinene, sesquiterpenes and polyterpenes. This has antihypertensive antidiabetic, antitumor, analgesic and insect repellent properties (Rifai, 1992). It has shown antiviral and antifungal activity against microorganisms such as Trichomonas gallinae, Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania amazonensis.
Plant extracts also show significant anti-inflammatory properties, and are used extensively as a folk remedy in South America against stomach diseases. Various uses in traditional medicine have been reported (Rifai, 1992). A leaf infusion is used in Brazil and Surinam as a stomachic, febrifuge and astringent, in Java the fruits are used to reduce blood pressure. Seeds are extremely resinous and toxic and can be used as a poison.
The characteristic 8-lobed ‘mini-pumpkin’-like and bright-coloured fruit add to making E. uniflora a popular ornamental in suitable climates. It is also commonly used as a hedge, because plants become densely branched when regularly trimmed. It is also planted as a boundary tree, barrier or support (Rifai, 1992).
Uses List
General > Ornamental
Environmental > Amenity
Environmental > Boundary, barrier or support
Environmental > Landscape improvement
Materials > Alcohol
Materials > Bark products
Materials > Essential oils
Materials > Tanstuffs
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Fruits
Ornamental > garden plant
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechnical Control
Physical methods are most commonly used, with seedlings and young trees being pulled out (Langeland et al., 2011) or dug out manually. Trees will coppice if just cut, so roots must be removed ot stumps treated with herbicides or burnt out.
Chemical Control
Basal bark treatments using triclopyr have proved effective on small plants with diameters up to 12 mm (Langeland et al., 2011). Triclopyr has also been used as a cut stump treatment (Langeland et al., 2011; PIER, 2013). Glyphosate and triclopyr are also reported effective as foliar sprays (NewsMail, 2015).
Cultivation
Site preparation and planting
Normal land preparation is recommended. E. uniflora may be planted when the seedlings are 6-10 months old or 30-40 cm tall. The distances used are 3-4 × 3-4 m or 5-6 × 5-6 m apart if planted as a conventional orchard, or more commonly in hedgerows leaving 1-2 m between plants and 4-6 m between rows.
Pruning, training and thinning
To reduce the time to reach fruit production, the plants should not be pruned until production begins. When used as a hedge the plant is pruned like a wall, leaving foliage from the ground level to the top. Early topping induces low branching and this is continued until the hedge fills; afterwards periodic light pruning is performed to keep the hedge height and width. As a garden specimen the plant can be pruned as a tree leaving four to five limbs with a single trunk, or pruned as a bush with multiple stems.
Irrigation
Irrigation is normally performed as part of the garden maintenance when planted as a hedge or in a garden. Watering improves growth, production and fruit size.
Fertilizers and manures
No specific fertilizer programme has been developed for E. uniflora, although it has been observed that periodic fertilization improves plant growth and production.
Weed control
In gardens or backyard orchards or fences, this will be done as a garden maintenance. In commercial orchards care has to be taken to keep the area in the vicinity of the plant clean
Principal sources: Duarte and Paull (2015)
Harvesting
Harvesting
E. uniflora fruit is non-climacteric and should be picked when fully ripe (dark red or nearly black) otherwise it may have a resinous flavour. Green mature fruits, if harvested, do not ripen fully and are of poor quality. The fruit reaches maximum total soluble solids, total titratable acidity and reducing sugars about 50 days after anthesis when fully ripe. Red fruits show higher respiratory activity and are lower in total titratable acidity than the purple type. It takes about 7 days from the mature green to the full ripe stage. Fruits rapidly lose water after harvest and should not be exposed to the sun. They have to be harvested carefully and stored in plastic bags, under shade and covered to avoid injuries, dust deposition and sunburn. It is good practice to harvest the fruit periodically after the maturation period to minimize the number of fruits that fall and are damaged by contact with the soil. The mature fruits are very sensitive and any bruises or stress can result in the peel being ruptured and fermentation being initiated (Vizzotto et al., 2011).
Yield
Seedlings of E. uniflora begin flowering and fruiting 2-4 years after planting. Yields per tree tend to be relatively low compared with other fruit trees, in the range of 2.5 to 3.6 kg per plant. Some reports claim that 11 kg of fruit has been obtained from large untrimmed plants.
Principal sources: Duarte and Paull (2015)
Postharvest Treatment
Postharvest treatment
The fruit can support storage for up to 24 hours after harvest at room temperature.
Storage
The storage of E. uniflora fruit under refrigeration (8°C) allows quality to be maintained for five days, but beyond this period intense physico-chemical alterations may occur. However, the fruit’s sensitivity to lower temperatures can result in damage, decreasing its storage period. Fruit preservation by freezing is recommended only for fruits that will be processed.
The short shelf-life of fresh E. uniflora makes the use of modified atmospheres attractive to minimize fungal infections and extend the commercialization period. The postharvest changes in mature red fruits kept under modified atmosphere by polyvinyl chloride film (PVC), at 10 or 14°C and, 90% relative humidity, and room temperature (23°C and 85% RH) were evaluated. This modified atmosphere resulted in the maintenance of the acidity, vitamin C, chlorophyll and carotenoid content of the fruits during a period of eight days, independent of the maturation stage. The temperature of 10°C was found to be the most suitable.
Packing
Packaging plays a decisive role in the improvement of fruit shelf life and new packaging materials are being developed, most of them derived from renewable resources. Edible coatings act by creating a modified atmosphere surrounding the commodity, similar to that achieved by controlled or modified atmospheric storage conditions. Taking into account the surface and permeability properties of the obtained films, a filmogenic solution of 1.5% of galactomannan and 1% of glycerol has been selected to be used on E. uniflora. This formulation should be either applied by immersion or sprayed on the fruits and allowed to dry at room temperature for 3 hours (Vizzotto et al., 2011).
Genetic Resources and Breeding
E. uniflora is reported to be a diploid species with a chromosome number of 2n = 22, but also with triploid forms having a chromosome number of 2n = 33 (Singhal et al., 1984). The presence of triploids indicates the likelihood of tetraploid forms, with triploids formed by backcrossing of tetraploids with the common diploid type.
There is a large genetic diversity as shown by fruit colour (from red to almost black), flavour (from very sweet to sweet-sour to resinous), size (1.5-5.0 cm diameter), number and size of seeds, external fruit ribs and frost tolerance (Villachica et al., 1996). Germplasm collections have been established in some agricultural research institutions in Brazil, at INPA in Manaus and at the Dirección Federal de Viçosa in Minas Gerais, in Peru at INIA in Iquitos, in Queensland, Australia at the Tropical Fruit Research Station and in the USA at the Subtropical Research Station in Miami (Duarte and Paull, 2015). No active programme of breeding, selection and evaluation exists.
Major Cultivars
Only one named cultivar called ‘Tropicana’ exists in Brazil. In other parts of the world no defined cultivars have been reported. Two distinct types of E. uniflora are reported, distinguished by differing fruit. The most common form has bright cerise (orange to red) fruits and red-tinged foliage. The other and rarer form has dark-red to black berries with flesh that tends to be sweeter and less resinous. In Brazil, three types are recognized: the orange pitanga or pitanga-laranja; the red pitanga or pitanga-vermelha; and the purple pitanga or pitanga-roxa. All three types are found in the wild but the orange and red types of E. uniflora are rarer. The darker fruits are reported to be sweeter and less resinous.
Principal sources: Duarte and Paull (2015)
Propagation
Seed propagation
E. uniflora is most commonly propagated by seed. The ideal is to take seeds from completely mature fruit, wash and clean them to remove the pulp then sow them as soon as possible. Seeds are recalcitrant and will remain viable for a month or less depending on the rate of dehydration; they will not germinate when their moisture content drops below 18%. Germination is hypogeal and emergence of the plants will occur after about 20-25 days. The seeds are best sown in bags or pots and the plants should be ready to transplant in 3 or 4 months when they reach 20-25 cm.
Vegetative propagation
Vegetative propagation of selected varieties has also been used successfully. Cuttings and suckers can be rooted and air layering is also successful. Veneer or cleft grafting onto Surinam cherry seedlings has also been used, as well as patch budding.
Principal sources: Duarte and Paull (2015)
Rootstocks
Seedlings are sometimes used for rootstocks of E. uniflora.
Principal sources: Janick and Paull (2008)
Nutritional Value
E. uniflora fruit flesh contains 0.8-1% protein, 0.4-0.8% fat, 8-12% carbohydrates, 0.3-0.6% fibre, and 0.3-0.5% ash. The vitamin C content is 20-30 mg/100 g and the energy value is 190 kJ/100 g.
Despite the many studies relating to the beneficial properties of E. uniflora leaves there are few published studies about the health effects of the fruit and its derivative products. Fruits harvested at immature stages have higher antioxidant content than fruits harvested at mature stages, suggesting that bioactive compounds for use in the food or cosmetic industries can be extracted at early stages, saving time, money and avoiding unnecessary field treatments. Fruits show a good correlation between antioxidant activity and phenolic content.
E. uniflora seeds are low in protein and fat, have a good supply of insoluble dietary fibre, and extracts of the seed have a powerful antioxidant capacity. Therefore, this low value waste of E. uniflora processing can be used as a source of natural antioxidants and dietary fibre for animals and/or human nutrition. E. uniflora seeds also have a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids (60-70%), being 13-16% monounsaturated fatty acids and 45-47% polyunsaturated fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially the n-3 fatty acids, are considered desirable compounds in the human diet because of their effect in reducing the incidence of cardiovascular disease (Vizzotto et al., 2011).
Production and Trade
Regarding the production and marketing of E. uniflora, there is neither official data from Brazil nor elsewhere; however it is estimated that Brazil is the largest world producer. While E. uniflora grows wild in a large area in Brazil there are a few regions that produce this fruit commercially (Lorenzi, 1992; Ctenas et al. 2000), the main one being the northeast (Lorenzi et al. 2006). Cultivation in Pernambuco state, the biggest producer, is particularly abundant, covering more than 300 hectares (Vizzotto et al., 2011).
Prospects
E. uniflora fruit has been gaining attention in countries other than Brazil for its exotic flavour and vitamin content and has been recognised as a natural and healthy food. There are great prospects for its use, not only in mixed juices of other fruits, but also as an additive in beverages and in the form of refreshment powder and nectars (Bezerra at al. 2000) or any designed functional food (Vizzotto et al., 2011).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
For the commercial production of fruit and for other potential uses especially where introduced, the agronomic and economic aspects need further investigation.
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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