Melinis minutiflora (molasses grass)
Datasheet Types: Pest, Invasive species, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Melinis minutiflora covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Melinis minutiflora P. Beauv.
- Preferred Common Name
- molasses grass
- Other Scientific Names
- Agrostis glutinosa Fisch. ex Kunth
- Melinis maitlandii Stapf and Hubbard
- Melinis purpurea Stapf and Hubbard
- Melinis tenuinervis Stapf
- Muehlenbergia brasiliensis Steud.
- Panicum melinis Trin.
- Panicum minutiflorum (P. Beauv.) Rasp.
- Suardia picta Shrank
- Tristegis glutinosa Nees
- International Common Names
- EnglishBrazilian stink grassBrazilian stinkgrasshoney grassstink grassWhynne grass
- Spanishcapin meladochopínpasto mielyaraguáyerba meladozacate gordura
- Frenchherbe à mielherbe molasses
- Chinesetang mi cao
- Local Common Names
- Australiastink grassstinkgrass
- Brazilcapim gorduracapim meladocapim-cabelo-de-negrocapim-catingueirocapim-de-frei-luizcapim-gordocapim-graxacapim-melosocatingueiro
- Chilehierba de melado
- Costa Ricacalinguero
- Cubacantingueiro del Brasilcapín gordura
- GermanyFettgrasMelassegras
- Italymelinide
- USAgreasy grass
- Venezuelacapín melaocapín meñaocatinguero
- EPPO code
- MILMI (Melinis minutiflora)
Pictures
Habit
Typical habit.
Grus Farley
Stem
Stem and leaves.
Grus Farley
Stem
Stem and leaf base.
Grus Farley
Leaves
Leaves.
Grus Farley
Flower
Flower spikelets.
Grus Farley
Seeds
Seed head.
Grus Farley
Spikelet
Spikelet and apex of sterile lemma.
Kurt G. Kissmann
Summary of Invasiveness
M. minutiflora is a grass which is used widely as a fodder species for livestock and for its ability to grow well on poor soils, but which is also strongly invasive. It has been introduced intentionally around the world, and also probably accidentally as a seed contaminant. It is difficult to eradicate when present, and poses a threat to agriculture and the environment. This species is highly invasive and grows forming dense mats that exclude native species, alter successional processes, reduce native tree and grass regeneration, and increase intensity and frequency of fires (Hoffmann et al., 2004).
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Poaceae is one of the largest families in the Angiosperms including about 707 genera and over 11,000 species widely distributed in all regions of the world. The genus Melinis is included within the subfamily Panicoideae in the subtribe Melinidinae (Stevens, 2012). The subtribe Melinidinae is characterized by C4 photosynthesis and includes genera that are remarkably variable in vegetative and reproductive characters (Morrone et al., 2012). The genus Melinis is closely related to the genera Leucophrys, Moorochloa and Tricholaena and shares morphological characters such as disarticulation at the base of the upper anthecium and a smooth and shiny upper anthecium (Morrone et al., 2012).
Plant Type
Grass / sedge
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Description
Plants are of diffuse growth habit, some reaching 2 m high. Culms 1-2 m long, cylindrical, 2-4 mm in diameter, intensely nodose with thick nodes and geniculate internodes, decumbent for almost all their length, terminally ascending. From lowest nodes there is some ramification with sterile tillers and a few adventitious roots. Root system fibrous with rhizomes present. Culms hairless, light green on the part covered by sheath. Sheets open, sometimes longer than the internode, particularly on the last leaf the sheet can be 3 times as long as the blade. Ligule a fringe of short hairs 1 mm long. Blades up to 15 cm long with a rounded base, narrowing to an acute apex. Leaves hairy on both sides, and at the base of hairs there are glands that secrete a sticky fluid with a sweet smell. On developed plants the lower leaves die, mostly because light cannot reach them. Compound panicles at the apex of culms, 15-25 cm long, erect, initially compact cylindrical, later loose pyramidal, very showy for their purple-reddish colour in most varieties, light coloured in others. Spikelets oblong, narrow and compressed, 1.8-2.4 mm long, lower bract reduced to a scale 3 mm long, upper bract strongly grooved with 7 nerves, one sterile floret with the lemma generally presenting a long awn and a terminal, hermaphrodite floret with an awnless lemma. Spikelets fall off entire, being easily dispersed by wind. Seed a lanceolate caryopsis with acute base and apex, with a bristle 1 mm long, pericarp smooth, brown-greenish. Seedlings can be easily recognized by the first leaf being ovate-orbicular, lying flat on the ground (Kissmann and Groth, 1997).
Distribution
M. minutiflora is native to tropical Africa, where it occurs in two disjunct populations in the east and west of the continent (Hauser, 2008). It has been widely introduced into many tropical and subtropical countries for cultivation as fodder. Currently it can be found cultivated and naturalized in tropical and temperate Asia, Australia, Hawaii, North America, Central America and parts of South America and in large areas of Brazil (see Distribution Table for details).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
M. minutiflora was first introduced into the Americas at the end of the 1800s, spreading in the 1900s to many countries. Due to its good forage quality, it is cultivated in many cattle raising regions. In Hawaii, M. minutiflora was introduced in the early 1900s for cattle forage, and was first collected on Lana’i Island in 1914 (Hauser, 2008). It was introduced to Moloka’i Island in the 1920s, and by the 1940s was present in Volcanoes National Park.
In Brazil, the original introduction was accidental but it was then dispersed intentionally for grazing purposes in regions of poor soil, and today, large areas in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Goiás, Mato Grosso and others are covered by this weed. In Puerto Rico this species was intentionally introduced in 1913 from Brazil and planted in the Experimental Station in Mayagüez. It is currently common throughout disturbed vegetation on the island (US National Herbarium). Shukla (1996) records that it was first introduced to India in 1937.
Risk of Introduction
It is highly likely that M. minutiflora will spread further due either to intentional introduction as a fodder grass, or accidental introduction as a contaminant of crop seeds. There are large parts of Asia where this species is not yet apparently present and which may suffer from invasion.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Dispersal is almost exclusively by wind that can disperse spikelets long distances. People disperse the plant locally for cultivation. Long distance dispersal may happen through export and import of seeds as a contaminant in cereal grains or transplant material. There continues to be interest in this species for economic reasons as a fodder.
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animal production (pathway cause) | Planted as a forage and fodder | Yes | Yes | |
| Disturbance (pathway cause) | Escape from cultivation | Yes | Yes | |
| Forage (pathway cause) | Planted as forage and fodder | Yes | Yes | |
| Habitat restoration and improvement (pathway cause) | Planted in poor soils and to control erosion | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Machinery and equipment (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Soil, sand and gravel (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
| Wind (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes |
Plant Trade
| Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
|---|
| Bark |
| Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes |
| Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx |
| Fruits (inc. pods) |
| Growing medium accompanying plants |
| Leaves |
| Roots |
| Seedlings/Micropropagated plants |
| Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches |
| True seeds (inc. grain) |
| Wood |
Hosts/Species Affected
M. minutiflora is an aggresive invasive plant in pastures, dominating other species, also in areas being forested as well as in some plantation crops, like coffee (Aistizábal and Posada, 1987). It is a weed in rice, sugarcane and cereal plantations.
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
| Host | Family | Host status | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Coffea (coffee) | Rubiaceae | Unknown | |
| Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Main |
Growth Stages
Seedling stage
Vegetative growing stage
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
M. minutiflora is distinct from most other grasses because its young leaves present glands that exudate a sticky and viscid smelly substance. Whereas some other African species of Melinis are also sticky, M. minutiflora is the only species with deeply grooved spikelets. M. minutiflora looks very similar to Melinis repens and these two species can be distinguished by the following differences (Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011):
•
Melinis minutiflora is a mat-forming plant with creeping (stoloniferous) stems and semi-upright flowering stems. Its flower spikelets are quite small (1.5-2.5 mm long) and mostly hairless, but usually bear a small hair-like awn (0-15 mm long).
•
Melinis repens is a tufted plant with upright (erect) or semi-upright (ascending) flowering stems. Its flower spikelets are relatively large (2-12 mm long) and densely covered in silky, reddish-colored hairs.
Habitat
M. minutiflora is well adapted to tropical and subtropical areas. As cultivated plants, there are varieties which have different environmental preferences. Plants which have escaped from cultivation colonize surrounding areas and in Brazil for example, it can be found on elevated clay soils of the Amazon basin as well as in woodland along the Atlantic coast. In Peru, it is found in Andropogon savannas, while in Florida it has been collected in slash pine rocklands (Hauser, 2008). In general, M. minutiflora can be found growing along roadsides, forest margins, open woodlands, pastures, disturbed sites, and waste areas in wet and sunny areas. It can also grow as a weed in sugarcane, rice and cereal plantations (Cook et al., 2005; Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | ||||
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for M. minutiflora is 2n = 36. There is considerable genetic variation within the species, with many varieties or races represented in Brazil and other American countries.
The chromosome number reported for M. minutiflora is 2n = 36. There is considerable genetic variation within the species, with many varieties or races represented in Brazil and other American countries.
Reproductive Biology
M. minutiflora flowers mostly in April and June in the southern hemisphere, the spikes producing a great quantity of spikelets with one caryopsis. In Hawaii, it flowers in a synchronous burst in late November, while in Florida it flowers in autumn (Hauser, 2008). In Brazil, seed production has been shown to be around 72,000 and 82,000 viable seeds per square metre for the cultivars Cabelo-de-Negro and Roxo, respectively (Martins et al., 2009). The reproduction is mostly by apomixes and seeds are dispersed by wind (Williams and Baruch, 2000). For cultivation, the sowing rate depends on the purity and quality of the seeds. It also spreads vegetative through stolons and rhizomes.
Physiology and Phenology
M. minutiflora is a robust perennial plant, growing well even on poor soil, under full as well as diffuse illumination. It possesses a C4 photosynthetic pathway. Seedlings establish best on well prepared soil, but in burned land preparation of soil is generally not necessary. It spreads quickly and grows vigorously on a wide range of soil types, but does not tolerate waterlogging or flooding. In areas of hot summers or cold winters the vegetation takes a temporary rest.
Environmental Requirements
Frost generally kills the plants. Optimal temperatures range from 14°C to 27°C. The plant is found in tropical and subtropical areas at elevations from 300 to 2400 m. It has naturalized in areas with annual rainfall ranging from 750mm to 2500mm but mostly from 1000mm to 2000mm. The species is well adapted to drought and it can resist up to 5 months of dry season. It is also adapted to moderate fire and after fire rapidly regenerates from remaining portions (Cook et al., 2005). Once established, plants are resistant to animal trampling.
M. minutiflora flowers mostly in April and June in the southern hemisphere, the spikes producing a great quantity of spikelets with one caryopsis. In Hawaii, it flowers in a synchronous burst in late November, while in Florida it flowers in autumn (Hauser, 2008). In Brazil, seed production has been shown to be around 72,000 and 82,000 viable seeds per square metre for the cultivars Cabelo-de-Negro and Roxo, respectively (Martins et al., 2009). The reproduction is mostly by apomixes and seeds are dispersed by wind (Williams and Baruch, 2000). For cultivation, the sowing rate depends on the purity and quality of the seeds. It also spreads vegetative through stolons and rhizomes.
Physiology and Phenology
M. minutiflora is a robust perennial plant, growing well even on poor soil, under full as well as diffuse illumination. It possesses a C4 photosynthetic pathway. Seedlings establish best on well prepared soil, but in burned land preparation of soil is generally not necessary. It spreads quickly and grows vigorously on a wide range of soil types, but does not tolerate waterlogging or flooding. In areas of hot summers or cold winters the vegetation takes a temporary rest.
Environmental Requirements
Frost generally kills the plants. Optimal temperatures range from 14°C to 27°C. The plant is found in tropical and subtropical areas at elevations from 300 to 2400 m. It has naturalized in areas with annual rainfall ranging from 750mm to 2500mm but mostly from 1000mm to 2000mm. The species is well adapted to drought and it can resist up to 5 months of dry season. It is also adapted to moderate fire and after fire rapidly regenerates from remaining portions (Cook et al., 2005). Once established, plants are resistant to animal trampling.
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| BS - Steppe climate | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | Tolerated | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Tolerated | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 2400 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute minimum temperature | 0 | |
| Mean annual temperature | 15 | 30 |
| Mean maximum temperature of hottest month | 20 | 35 |
| Mean minimum temperature of coldest month | 5 | 15 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | 1 | 5 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
| Mean annual rainfall | 750 | 2500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Bimodal
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture > heavy
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil reaction > alkaline
Soil drainage > free
Soil drainage > impeded
Special soil tolerances > shallow
Special soil tolerances > saline
Special soil tolerances > infertile
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
M. minutiflora is generally little affected by insects or disease. The exudate is repulsive to many arthropods. However, the following species of fungi, nematodes and diseases have been reported on M. minutiflora (Cook et al., 2005):
(1) Fungi: Claviceps sp., Corticium solani [Thanatephorus cucumeris], Fusarium graminearum [Gibberella zeae], F. Sambucinum [Gibberella pulicaris], Phyllachora graminis, P. melinicola, Uredo melinidis, and Uromyces setariae-italicae.
(2) Nematodes: Helicotylenchus dihystera, Hemicriconemoides cocophilus, Meloiodgyne javanica, Peltamigratus nigeriensis, and Scutellonema clathricaudatum.
(3) A stunting virus disease carried by Malaxodes farinosus, affects some varieties in Kenya.
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Animal/plant collections | None |
| Animal/plant products | None |
| Biodiversity (generally) | Negative |
| Crop production | Negative |
| Cultural/amenity | Negative |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
| Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
| Forestry production | Negative |
| Human health | None |
| Livestock production | Positive |
| Native fauna | None |
| Native flora | Negative |
| Rare/protected species | None |
| Tourism | None |
| Trade/international relations | None |
| Transport/travel | None |
Impact: Economic
There are positive impacts of M. minutiflora by permitting the use of poor land for cattle and milk production. In Minas Gerais, Brazil, it is the preferred fodder plant because of high production of good quality forage, and it is said to increase milk output. The exudate from the glands on the leaves is irritating to most insects, which do not stay where the plants are, and this is beneficial to cattle, reducing the numbers of ticks, flies and mosquitoes.
M. minutiflora is a weed in rice, sugarcane, cereals and coffee plantations (Holm et al., 1979), and also becomes dominant when it grows in pastures. Its weedy nature, and the way dense infestations prevent growth of native species, means that negative impacts generally outweigh the positive in most areas.
M. minutiflora is a weed in rice, sugarcane, cereals and coffee plantations (Holm et al., 1979), and also becomes dominant when it grows in pastures. Its weedy nature, and the way dense infestations prevent growth of native species, means that negative impacts generally outweigh the positive in most areas.
Impact: Environmental
M. minutiflora forms dense infestations preventing the growth of any other species. For instance, native woodlands in Hawaii and native “Cerrado” forests in Brazil are now converted to grasslands dominated by M. minutiflora. In these areas, M. minutiflora grows forming a dense monospecific mat which completely outcompete native vegetation, disrupts successional processes, reduces native tree and native grasses regeneration, alters nutrient regimes and increases fire intensity and frequency (Hughes et al., 1991; Hoffmann et al., 2004; Hoffmann and Haridasan, 2008). The species can be very persistent: in Hawaiian woodlands, D’Antonio et al. (2011) reported that burned sites dominated by M. minutiflora in 1991 were still dominated by this grass.
In areas where M. minutiflora has become invasive it is negatively impacting native biodiversity. In Hawaii native “Metrosideros woodlands” are replaced by grasslands dominated by M. minutiflora and this conversion is indirectly impacting the conservation of endangered species such as Pittosporum terminalioides (Hughes et al., 1991). Wagner et al. (1999) report that the species “appears capable of displacing” many of the native lowland mesic shrublands in Hawaii. References cited in Hauser (2008) also suggest that the grass promotes higher nitrogen levels in soil, and that this may promote further establishment of M. minutiflora and other non-native species in Hawaiian shrublands that are normally nutrient-poor.
M. minutiflora also hinders the establishment of other plants by secreting allelopathic substances (Marinero, 1964).
In areas where M. minutiflora has become invasive it is negatively impacting native biodiversity. In Hawaii native “Metrosideros woodlands” are replaced by grasslands dominated by M. minutiflora and this conversion is indirectly impacting the conservation of endangered species such as Pittosporum terminalioides (Hughes et al., 1991). Wagner et al. (1999) report that the species “appears capable of displacing” many of the native lowland mesic shrublands in Hawaii. References cited in Hauser (2008) also suggest that the grass promotes higher nitrogen levels in soil, and that this may promote further establishment of M. minutiflora and other non-native species in Hawaiian shrublands that are normally nutrient-poor.
M. minutiflora also hinders the establishment of other plants by secreting allelopathic substances (Marinero, 1964).
Threatened Species
| Threatened species | Where threatened | Mechanisms | References | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abutilon sandwicense (greenflower Indian mallow) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Competition - shading Competition - smothering | ||
| Asplenium unisorum (singlesorus island spleenwort) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Competition - shading Competition - smothering | ||
| Cyanea recta (Kealia cyanea) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Cyrtandra limahuliensis (Limahuli cyrtandra) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Drosophila aglaia | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Drosophila hemipeza | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Drosophila heteroneura | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Drosophila montgomeryi | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Drosophila musaphilia | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Drosophila substenoptera | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Isodendrion longifolium (longleaf isodendrion) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Lobelia monostachya (Waianae Range lobelia) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Lobelia niihauensis (Niihau lobelia) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Melanthera tenuifolia (Waianae Range nehe) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Melicope christophersenii | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Melicope hiiakae | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Melicope makahae | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Nototrichium humile (kaala rockwort) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Peucedanum sandwicense (makou) | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | ||
| Phyllostegia glabra var. lanaiensis (ulihi phyllostegia) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Phyllostegia hirsuta (Molokai phyllostegia) | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | ||
| Phyllostegia parviflora (smallflower phyllostegia) | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Pittosporum napaliense (royal cheesewood) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Platydesma rostrata | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Pritchardia munroi (Kamalo pritchardia) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Pritchardia napaliensis | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Psychotria hobdyi (Hobdy's wild-coffee) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Remya mauiensis (Maui remya) | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | ||
| Sanicula mariversa (Waianae Range blacksnakeroot) | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | ||
| Santalum freycinetianum var. lanaiense | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | ||
| Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka) | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) | ||
| Schiedea hookeri (sprawling schiedea) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Schiedea kaalae (Oahu schiedea) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Schiedea kealiae (Waianae Range schiedea) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Schiedea lydgatei (Kamalo Gulch schiedea) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Schiedea nuttallii | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Schiedea sarmentosa | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Silene alexandri | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Silene lanceolata (Kauai catchfly) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Silene perlmanii (cliffface catchfly) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Spermolepis hawaiiensis (Hawaii scaleseed) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | ||
| Stenogyne bifida (twocleft stenogyne) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Stenogyne kanehoana (Oahu stenogyne) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Tetramolopium filiforme (ridgetop tetramolopium) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Tetramolopium lepidotum (Waianae Range tetramolopium) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Tetramolopium remyi (Awalua Ridge tetramolopium) | Hawaii | Competition - strangling | ||
| Vigna o-wahuensis (Oahu cowpea) | Hawaii | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration Pest and disease transmission | ||
| Viola chamissoniana subsp. chamissoniana (pamakani) | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Viola lanaiensis (Hawaii violet) | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Wilkesia hobdyi (dwarf iliau) | Hawaii | Competition (unspecified) |
Impact: Social
There are very positive social impacts for poor farmers in regions with poor soil, by providing good fodder for animals. The increase risk of fire may, however, pose a threat near to built-up areas.
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Reproduces asexually
Has high genetic variability
Impact outcomes
Altered trophic level
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Increases vulnerability to invasions
Modification of fire regime
Modification of hydrology
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced native biodiversity
Soil accretion
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Allelopathic
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Competition - smothering
Competition - strangling
Competition (unspecified)
Pest and disease transmission
Rapid growth
Rooting
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
M. minutiflora is an excellent forage plant for cattle, being very palatable not just because of the foliage itself, but also because of the exudate 'honey' on the leaves (Bogdan, 1977). Fresh weight production can reach 30 t/ha on fertile land. Dry matter contains about 9% crude protein and also contains fatty substances. In earlier times, the species constituted the feeding basis for cattle in the states of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, Goiás and Mato Grosso, Brazil. Even today, M. minutiflora is an important fodder plant in Brazil for beef and milk cattle, normally for grazing but also some haymaking (Pio Corrêa, 1926). When used for grazing, plants should be allowed to first reach 35-45 cm in height. If cut for haymaking, cuts at about 10 cm from ground level result in higher herbage than closer cutting.
The repellent effect of M. minutiflora against insects is being exploited through its use as an intercrop in maize in the 'push-pull' technique for controlling the stem-borers Chilo partellus and Busseola fusca in East Africa (Khan et al., 2001). The system has been adopted by more than 30,000 smallholder farmers in East Africa where maize yields have increased from ~1t/ha to 3.5t/ha (Khan et al., 2010).
The repellent effect of M. minutiflora against insects is being exploited through its use as an intercrop in maize in the 'push-pull' technique for controlling the stem-borers Chilo partellus and Busseola fusca in East Africa (Khan et al., 2001). The system has been adopted by more than 30,000 smallholder farmers in East Africa where maize yields have increased from ~1t/ha to 3.5t/ha (Khan et al., 2010).
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
M. minutiflora can be controlled by preventing the plants from forming seeds. Mechanical control involves cutting and removing rhizomes and culms from the area. Glyphosate and fluazifop-P are herbicides in use as effective chemical control. No known use of biological control has been reported.
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
References
Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98:1192 pp. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Aistizábal AG, Posada HR, 1987. Descripcion de Malezas en Plantaciones dc Café. Bogotá, Colombia: Cenicafé.
Bogdan AV, 1977. Tropical Pasture and Fodder Plants. Longman. London UK, xiii + 475 pp.
Broome R, Sabir K, Carrington S, 2007. Plants of the Eastern Caribbean. Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. http://ecflora.cavehill.uwi.edu/index.html
Chacón E, Saborío G, 2012. Red Interamericana de Información de Especies Invasoras, Costa Rica ([English title not available]). San José, Costa Rica: Asociación para la Conservación y el Estudio de la Biodiversidad. http://invasoras.acebio.org
Clayton WD, Govaerts R, Harman KT, Williamson H, Vorontsova M, 2014. World Checklist of Poaceae. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
Cook BG, Pengelly BC, Brown SD, Donnelly JL, Eagles DA, Franco MA, Hanson J, Partridge IJ, Peter M, Schultze-Kraft R, 2005. Tropical Forages: an interactive selection tool. Brisbane, Australia: CSIRO, DPI&F, CIAT, ILRI. http://www.tropicalforages.info/
D'Antonio CM, Hughes RF, Tunison JT, 2011. Long-term impacts of invasive grasses and subsequent fire in seasonally dry Hawaiian woodlands. Ecological Applications, 21(5):1617-1628. http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/10-0638.1
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014. Flora of China. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Hauser AS, 2008. Melinis minutiflora. Fire Effects Information System., USA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/
Hoffmann WA, Haridasan M, 2008. The invasive grass, Melinis minutiflora, inhibits tree regeneration in a Neotropical savanna. Austral Ecology, 33(1):29-36. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/aec
Hoffmann WA, Lucatelli VMPC, Silva FJ, Azeuedo INC, Marinho Mda S, Albuquerque AMS, Lopes Ade O, Moreira SP, 2004. Impact of the invasive alien grass Melinis minutiflora at the savanna-forest ecotone in the Brazilian Cerrado. Diversity and Distributions, 10(2):99-103.
Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1979. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. New York, USA: Wiley.
Hughes F, Vitousek PM, Tunison T, 1991. Alien grass invasion and fire in the seasonal submontane zone of Hawaii. Ecology, 72(2):743-746.
IABIN, 2014. Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network (IABIN). Red de Informacion sobre especies invasoras ([English title not available]). http://www.oas.org/en/sedi/dsd/iabin/
Kairo M, Ali B, Cheesman O, Haysom K, Murphy S, 2003. Invasive species threats in the Caribbean region. Report to the Nature Conservancy. Curepe, Trinidad and Tobago: CAB International, 132 pp. http://www.issg.org/database/species/reference_files/Kairo%20et%20al,%202003.pdf
Khan ZR, Midega CAO, Bruce TJA, Hooper AM, Pickett JA, 2010. Exploiting phytochemicals for developing a 'push-pull' crop protection strategy for cereal farmers in Africa. Journal of Experimental Botany, 61(15):4185-4196. http://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/content/61/15/4185.full
Khan ZR, Pickett JA, Wadhams L, Muyekho F, 2001. Habitat management strategies for the control of cereal stemborers and striga in maize in Kenya. Insect Science and its Application, 21(4):375-380; [Status and advances in biological control of cereal stemborers in Africa.]; 17 ref.
Lorenzi H, 2000. Plantas daninhas do Brasil. Terrestres, Aquaticus, Parasitas e Toxicas, edition 2. Instituto Plantarum De Estudos Da Flora Ltda.
Marinero RM, 1964. Influence of Melinis minutiflora on the growth of Cordia alliodora. Turrialba, 14(1):41-3.
Martins CR, Hay JDV, Walter BMT, Proença CEB, Vivaldi LJ, 2011. Impact of invasion and management of molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora) on the native vegetation of the Brazilian Savanna. (Impacto da invasão e do manejo do capim-gordura (Melinis minutiflora) sobre a riqueza e biomassa da flora nativa do Cerrado sentido restrito.) Revista Brasileira de Botânica, 34(1):73-90. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0100-84042011000100008&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=pt
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2003. VAScular Tropicos database. St. Louis, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://mobot.mobot.org/W3T/Search/vast.html.
Morrone O, Aagesen L, Scataglini MA, Salariato DL, Denham SS, Chemisquy MA, Sede SM, Giussani LM, Kellogg EA, Zuloaga FO, 2012. Phylogeny of the Paniceae (Poaceae: Panicoideae): integrating plastid DNA sequences and morphology into a new classification. Cladistics, 28(4):333-356. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-0031.2011.00384.x/full
National Tropical Botanical Garden, 2007. http://ntbg.org
NatureServe, 2010. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.1. Arlington, Virginia, USA. http://www.natureserve.org/explorer
Noltie HJ, 2000. Flora of Bhutan including a record of plants from Sikkim and Darjeeling. Volume 3 Part 2. The Grasses of Bhutan. Edinburgh, UK: Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh and Royal Government of Bhutan.
Oviedo Prieto R, Herrera Oliver P, Caluff MG, et al., 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba, 6(Special Issue 1):22-96.
PIER, 2014. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. Honolulu, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
Pattiselanno F, 2008. Grazing habitat: indicator of the abundance of Rusa Timor deer (Cervus timorensis) in the upland Kebar grassland Papua, Indonesia. In: Perspectives in animal ecology and reproduction, Volume 5 [ed. by Gupta, V. K.\Verma, A. K.]. Delhi, India: Daya Publishing House, 209-224.
Peng GuiXiang, Wang HuaRong, Zhang GuoXia, Hou Wei, Liu Yang, Wang EnTao, Tan ZhiYuan, 2006. Azospirillum melinis sp. nov., a group of diazotrophs isolated from tropical molasses grass. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 56(6):1263-1271. http://ijs.sgmjournals.org
Pio Corrêa M, 1926. Diccionario das Plantas Tteis do Brasil e das Exóticas Cultivadas, Vol, 1.
Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, 2011. Special edition of Environmental Weeds of Australia for Biosecurity Queensland., Australia: The University of Queensland and Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d04-0605030c0f01/media/Html/Index.htm
Ravi N, Raj MSK, Mohanan N, Shaji L, 2004. Melinis minutiflora P. Beauv. (Poaceae), an interesting new record for Peninsular India. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany, 28(1):81-83.
Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney, 2003. Australia's Virtual Herbarium. Sydney, Australia: Royal Botanic Gardens. http://plantnet.rbgsyd.gov.au/cgi-bin/avh/avh.cgi.
Shukla U, 1996. The Grasses of North-Eastern India. Jodhpur, India: Scientific Publishers, 325 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995. Lana'i Plant Cluster Recovery Plan. In: Lana'i Plant Cluster Recovery Plan.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 138 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995. Recovery Plan for the Kauai Plant Cluster. In: Recovery Plan for the Kauai Plant Cluster.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 270 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1996. Recovery Plan for the Molokai Plant Cluster. In: Recovery Plan for the Molokai Plant Cluster.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 143 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998. Recovery Plan for Oahu Plants. In: Recovery Plan for Oahu Plants.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 207 pp. + appendices.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1999. Recovery Plan for Multi-Island Plants. In: Recovery Plan for Multi-Island Plants.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 206 pp. + appendices.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Kulu`i (Nototrichium humile). 5-Year Review. In: Kulu`i (Nototrichium humile). 5-Year Review.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 11 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Phyllostegia hirsuta (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Phyllostegia hirsuta (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 10 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Phyllostegia parviflora (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Phyllostegia parviflora (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 12 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Silene alexandri (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Silene alexandri (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 10 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2008. Viola chamissoniana ssp. chamissoniana (Pamakani). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Viola chamissoniana ssp. chamissoniana (Pamakani). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 11 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Remya mauiensis (Maui remya). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Remya mauiensis (Maui remya). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 15 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Schiedea nuttallii (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Schiedea nuttallii (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 13 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009. Tetramolopium lepidotum ssp. lepidotum (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Tetramolopium lepidotum ssp. lepidotum (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 13 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass).US Fish and Wildlife Service. 10 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia napaliensis (loulu palm). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia napaliensis (loulu palm).US Fish and Wildlife Service. 10 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Schiedea kealiae (ma oli oli). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Schiedea kealiae (ma oli oli).US Fish and Wildlife Service. 6 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Stenogyne bifida (no common name). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Stenogyne bifida (no common name).US Fish and Wildlife Service. 8 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Wilkesia hobdyi (dwarf iliau). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Wilkesia hobdyi (dwarf iliau).US Fish and Wildlife Service. 8 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Determination of Endangered Status for 48 Species on Kauai and designation of Critical Habitat: Final Rule. In: Determination of Endangered Status for 48 Species on Kauai and designation of Critical Habitat: Final Rule.US Fish and Wildlife Service. i + 205 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Recovery Outline for the Kauai Ecosystem. In: Recovery Outline for the Kauai Ecosystem.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 38 pp. + 3 maps.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 19 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Silene lanceolata (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Silene lanceolata (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 15 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Spermolepis hawaiiensis (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Spermolepis hawaiiensis (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 19 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. Tetramolopium filiforme (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Tetramolopium filiforme (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 11 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia munroi (lo'ulu). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Pritchardia munroi (lo'ulu).US Fish and Wildlife Service. 11 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Vigna o-wahuensis (no common name). In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Vigna o-wahuensis (no common name).US Fish and Wildlife Service. 10 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing 23 Species on Oahu as Endangered and Designating Critical Habitat for 124 Species. In: Federal Register, 76(148) US Fish and Wildlife Service. 46362-46593. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2011-08-02/pdf/2011-17162.pdf
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Isodendrion longifolium (aupaka). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Isodendrion longifolium (aupaka). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. US Fish and Wildlife Service. 28 pp. http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc3809.pdf
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Santalum freycinetianum var. lanaiense, Lanai sandalwood ('iliahi). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Santalum freycinetianum var. lanaiense, Lanai sandalwood ('iliahi). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 19 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Schiedea hookeri (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Schiedea hookeri (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 20 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Schiedea lydgatei (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Schiedea lydgatei (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 17 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Schiedea sarmentosa (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. In: Schiedea sarmentosa (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 14 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Silene perlmanii (no common name) Current Classification: Endangered. In: 5-Year Review, Short Form Summary: Species Reviewed: Silene perlmanii (no common name) Current Classification: Endangered.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 5 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for 23 Species on Oahu and Designation of Critical Habitat for 124 Species; Final Rule. In: Federal Register, 77(181) US Fish and Wildlife Service. 57648-57862. https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2012-09-18/pdf/2012-19561.pdf
USDA-ARS, 2003. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-ARS, 2014. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysearch.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2002. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, USA. http://plants.usda.gov.
Wagner WI, Herbst DR, Sohmer SH, 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, revised edition. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University of Hawaii Press.
Williams DG, Baruch Z, 2000. African grass invasion in the Americas: ecosystem consequences and the role of ecophysiology. Biological Invasions, 2:123-140.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
Copyright © CABI. CABI is a registered EU trademark. This article is published under a Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
History
Published online: 27 June 2014
Language
English
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
SCITE_
Citations
Export citation
Select the format you want to export the citations of this publication.
EXPORT CITATIONSExport Citation
View Options
View options
Login Options
Check if you access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.