Melia azedarach (Chinaberry)
Datasheet Types: Invasive species, Tree, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Melia azedarach covers Identity, Overview, Associated Diseases, Pests or Pathogens, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Management, Genetics and Breeding, Economics, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Melia azedarach L.
- Preferred Common Name
- Chinaberry
- Other Scientific Names
- Azedara speciosa Raf.
- Azedarach commelinii Medik.
- Azedarach deleteria Medik.
- Azedarach fraxinifolia Moench
- Azedarach odoratum Noronha
- Azedarach sempervirens Kuntze
- Melia angustifolia Schumach. & Thonn.
- Melia birmanica Kurz
- Melia cochinchinensis M.Roem.
- Melia dubia Cav.
- Melia japonica G.Don
- Melia orientalis M.Roem.
- Melia sambucina Blume
- Melia toosendan Siebold & Zucc.
- International Common Names
- EnglishBarbados lilacbead treeChina treeChinaberry treeIndian lilacPersian lilacpride of Indiatulip-cedarumbrella treeumbrella-cedarwhite cedar
- Spanishalelíárbol de rosariosarbol del paraisocinamonocinnamonjacintameliaparaiso
- Frencharbre à chapeletsazedarachlilas de Chinelilas des Antilleslilas des Indeslilas des Perse
- Chineselian
- Local Common Names
- Bangladeshgoda neem
- Brazilamargoseiraarvore-santajasmim-de-cachorrojasmim-de-soldadolilás-da-Indiapara-raiossinamomo
- Cambodiadâk' hiënsdau khmaôch
- GermanyPaternosterbaumZedarachbaum
- Indiaarebevubakam-limdobakarjabakarjanbakayanbakon-limdibetainbokainchik-bevudeiknadekdeknoidrekghora nimgowdnimheb-bevuhutchubevukadbevukaliyapakarin vembukattu veppumahaneemmakanimmalla nimmallay vembupadraipejripuvempusima vepputaraka-vepathamagathurakavepaturkavaymbuvilayati nimyerri-vepa
- Indonesiagringging (Java)marambung (Sumatra)mindi
- Italyalbero dei paternostrialbero dei rosari
- Laosh'ienxkadau s'angz
- Malaysiamindi kecil
- Netherlandsgalbessenpaternosterboom
- Pakistanbakaindhrekwhite cedar
- Philippinesbagaluñgabalagañgoparaiso
- Singaporemindi kechil
- Thailandkhianlian
- Vietnamxoan
Pictures
Overview
Importance
Melia azedarach is a fast-growing, mainly deciduous tree, naturalised throughout the tropical, subtropical and temperate regions. It is highly adaptable and tolerates a wide range of climatic and soil conditions.
Melia azedarach is widely used for ornamental and amenity planting since the tree has scented, attractive flowers and is well suited as a shade tree. Its quick growth and convenient size make it a good choice for fuelwood production.
It is well-adapted for agroforestry in winter rice/wheat systems, as in for example Bangladesh, as it is leafless in the cropping season.
The timber is used for the manufacture of agricultural implements, furniture and building construction. Extracts from the tree are used for a range of medicinal and insecticidal properties. The leaves provide forage for stock but the bitter fruit are highly poisonous and should not be accessible to livestock and children.
Summary of Invasiveness
Melia azedarach is an aggressive invader with the potential to colonize disturbed and relatively undisturbed natural areas, with a detrimental impact on native biodiversity. This species has a high fruit and seed output, and the seeds are easily dispersed by frugivores and abiotic factors. It is also highly resistant to insects and other pathogens, a trait giving it a competitive advantage over many native species. Its leaf litter can increase the pH of soils and add nitrogen, significantly altering soil chemistry. Decaying leaf litter can enhance the soil concentration of mineralizable nitrogen by an amount comparable to nitrogen-fixing legumes. This invasive species can also spread vegetatively and rapidly establish dense thickets that outcompete other plant species and disrupt natural regeneration. All these traits have contributed to its successful establishment and colonization of a great range of habitat types and climatic zones worldwide. Currently, M. azedarach is listed as invasive in a number of locations in the Americas, Europe, the Pacific and Africa. It is difficult to control because of its ability to resprout from stems and suckers, and the expense of chemical techniques.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The family Meliaceae comprises 50 genera and 641 species with a pantropical distribution but most diverse in the Old World (Stevens, 2017). Melia azedarach, first described by Linnaeus in 1753, is a complex of natural and cultivated forms, the latter being in existence for over 2500 years (Mabberley, 1984). The type was formally described from an Indian cultivar. Mabberley (1984) and Mabberley et al. (1995) reviewed the taxonomy and botanical history of M. azedarach and suggested an informal infraspecific classification under three groups: wild trees, Chinese cultivars and Indian cultivars, each containing many forms with different synonyms or varietal names.
Plant Type
Perennial
Seed / spore propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Broadleaved
Tree
Woody
Description
The following description is from Mabberley (1984), Ahmed and Idris (1997) and Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018):
A deciduous tree, to 20 m tall with a diameter to 60 cm. Bark brownish grey, longitudinally exfoliating. Branches spreading; branchlets with leaf scars. Leaves odd-pinnate, 2-pinnate or 3-pinnate, 20-40 cm; leaflets opposite; leaflet blades ovate, elliptic, or lanceolate, 3-7 × 2-3 cm but terminal one usually slightly larger, both surfaces with stellate trichomes when young but glabrescent, secondary veins 12-16 on each side of midvein, outspread and ascending, base ± oblique and cuneate to broadly cuneate, margin crenate or sometimes entire, apex shortly acuminate. Flowers fragrant. Calyx 5-parted; sepals ovate to oblong-ovate, outside puberulent, apex acute. Petals lilac-coloured, obovate-spatulate, 0.9-1.3 cm, both surfaces puberulent but usually outside more densely so. Staminal tube purple, 7-8 mm, with longitudinal stripes, glabrous or subglabrous, apical margin with ten narrow lobes; lobes conic, further 2- or 3-lobed; anthers 10, inserted on inner side of lobes and alternate to lobes, narrowly elliptic, apex slightly mucronulate. Ovary spherical, glabrous, 5-8-locular, with two ovules per locule; style acerose; stigma capitate, not included within filament tube, apex 5-dentate. Drupe globose to ellipsoid, 1-3 × 0.8-1.5 cm; endocarp ligneous. Seed ellipsoid, smooth, brown, ca. 3.5 × 1.6 mm.
Distribution
The natural distribution range of M. azedarach is still uncertain, but it is well accepted that the wild form originates from southern Asia and northern Australia. It has been introduced to many parts of the world and can be found naturalized across the Americas, the Caribbean, the Mediterranean basins, the Middle East, Asia, Africa and on many islands in the Pacific region (Orwa et al., 2009; Voigt et al., 2011; GRIIS, 2018; PIER, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018). In Australia, both wild and naturalized populations have been reported (see Distribution Table for details; Queensland Government, 2018). The latitudinal range covering both natural and naturalized populations is approximately 35°N to 35°S, indicating a purely tropical distribution.
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Melia azedarach is widely distributed throughout the tropical, sub-tropical and warm temperate regions of the world where it has been introduced mainly as an ornamental tree and for its timber (Orwa et al., 2009; Waggy, 2009; GISD, 2018). In South Africa, this species was recorded in Cape Town for the first time in 1800 and it has since become highly invasive in the warm eastern and northern parts of South Africa, invading ruderal habitats, areas along riparian systems, roads and forest fringes, savannahs and grasslands (Henderson, 1992; Richardson et al., 1997; Voigt et al., 2011).
In North America, M. azedarach was initially introduced in 1830 to South Carolina and Georgia in the USA as an ornamental shade tree. It has been widely planted in southern states. It readily escapes cultivation and spreads to disturbed sites and wild lands (Langeland et al., 2008; Waggy, 2009).
Risk of Introduction
The risk of new introductions of M. azedarach is very high. This species has been widely introduced and is still commercialized. The main risk of invasion is likely to occur from already introduced plantings because seeds can be easily dispersed by animals, water and humans (Waggy, 2009; Voigt et al., 2011). It would be advisable to monitor early signs of invasive behaviour in areas where the climate and environmental conditions are similar to those of locations where M. azedarach has become invasive. Nurseries continue to sell the trees, and seeds are also widely available online.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal
Melia azedarach spreads by seed and vegetatively by root-suckering (Batcher, 2000; Weber, 2003; Langeland et al., 2008). Vegetative spread occurs from root sprouts or from stumps. Root sprouts often grow on lateral roots as a response to physical damage (e.g. fire, animal injury, tree felling). It is also propagated from cuttings (Waggy, 2009).
Seeds are dispersed by frugivorous species including birds, bats and other mammals (e.g. livestock). In South Africa, this species is dispersed by seven native species of birds and one native species of bat (Voigt et al., 2011). In North America, seeds are dispersed by birds, cattle, gravity and water. In Florida, it is dispersed by song birds. Seedlings emerge in abundance near the parent plant, suggesting that much of the seed is gravity-dispersed (Langeland et al., 2008; Waggy, 2009). In South Africa, the effective seed dispersal by water enables this species to invade protected areas far from the parent plant (Invasive Species South Africa, 2018).
Intentional Introduction
Melia azedarach has been extensively introduced worldwide. It has been intentionally cultivated and planted as an ornamental tree and for its timber and has now achieved a wide global distribution (Waggy, 2009; USDA-ARS, 2018).
Pathway Causes
Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production (pathway cause) | Used as an 'intercropping' species and for shade in coffee plantations | Yes | Yes | |
Digestion and excretion (pathway cause) | Fruits consumed and dispersed by birds, bats, livestock | Yes | Yes | |
Disturbance (pathway cause) | Often naturalized in ruderal areas, roadsides, old farms, etc | Yes | Yes | |
Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Escaped and naturalized in disturbed and undisturbed areas | Yes | Yes | |
Forage (pathway cause) | A common fodder species across Asia | Yes | Yes | |
Forestry (pathway cause) | Planted for its timber | Yes | Yes | |
Garden waste disposal (pathway cause) | Fruits and cuttings | Yes | Yes | |
Habitat restoration and improvement (pathway cause) | Planted for reforestation and erosion control | Yes | Yes | |
Hedges and windbreaks (pathway cause) | Hedge and shade tree | Yes | Yes | |
Intentional release (pathway cause) | Widely introduced as an ornamental and for its timber | Yes | Yes | |
Internet sales (pathway cause) | Seeds available online | Yes | Yes | |
Medicinal use (pathway cause) | Used in traditional Asian medicine | Yes | Yes | |
Nursery trade (pathway cause) | Seeds and plants commercialized as ornamental and shade trees | Yes | Yes | |
Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Widely cultivated as an ornamental and shade tree | Yes | Yes | |
Seed trade (pathway cause) | Seeds available online | Yes | Yes | |
Timber trade (pathway cause) | Often planted for its 'mahogany-like' timber | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Fruits, root suckers | Yes | Yes | |
Mail (pathway vector) | Seeds available online | Yes | Yes | |
Livestock (pathway vector) | Seeds excreted following consumption | Yes | Yes | |
Water (pathway vector) | Seeds | Yes | Yes |
Host Animals
Host animal | Context | Life stages | Production systems |
---|---|---|---|
Bos indicus (zebu) | |||
Bos taurus (cattle) | |||
Capra hircus (goats) | |||
Ovis aries (sheep) | |||
Sus scrofa (pigs) |
List of Symptoms/Signs
Symptom or sign | Life stages | Sign or diagnosis | Disease stage |
---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Decreased amount of stools, absent faeces, constipation | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Diarrhoea | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Difficulty in prehending or chewing food | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Rumen hypomotility or atony, decreased rate, motility, strength | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Abnormal proprioceptive positioning, knuckling | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Ataxia, incoordination, staggering, falling | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Ataxia, incoordination, staggering, falling | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Cyanosis, blue skin or membranes | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Cyanosis, blue skin or membranes | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Dehydration | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Dysmetria, hypermetria, hypometria | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Generalized weakness, paresis, paralysis | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Hypothermia, low temperature | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Inability to stand, downer, prostration | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Inability to stand, downer, prostration | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Trembling, shivering, fasciculations, chilling | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Trembling, shivering, fasciculations, chilling | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Coma, stupor | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Dullness, depression, lethargy, depressed, lethargic, listless | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Tremor | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Pain/Discomfort Signs/Colic, abdominal pain | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Dyspnea, difficult, open mouth breathing, grunt, gasping | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Dyspnea, difficult, open mouth breathing, grunt, gasping | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Increased respiratory rate, polypnea, tachypnea, hyperpnea | Sign | ||
Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Increased respiratory rate, polypnea, tachypnea, hyperpnea | Sign |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Melia azedarach is often confused with the neem tree Azadirachta indica, to which it is related. A. indica can easily be distinguished by the absence of stellate leaf hairs, pinnate leaves (not bipinnate as in M. azedarach), 3-lobed stigmas (not 5-lobed) and 1- to 2-seeded drupes (not up to 5-seeded).
Habitat
Melia azedarach can be found growing in lowland and highland rainforests (Weber, 2003). It is able to grow in both disturbed and undisturbed areas. It can be found naturalized in woodlands, grasslands, riparian forests, coastal forests, waste grounds, roadsides, pastures and old agricultural lands (Batcher, 2000; Waggy, 2009; GISD, 2018). In tropical Asia, it is associated with mixed deciduous forests and seasonal forests, including bamboo thickets and Tamarindus woodland (Orwa et al., 2009).
In Australia, M. azedarach can be found on the margins of closed forests (rainforests), in riverine forests, dry thickets and littoral rainforests (Floyd, 1979; Tracey, 1982; Doran and Turnbull, 1997). In South Africa, it invades savannahs, grasslands, urban open spaces, wastelands, riparian corridors and road margins (Henderson, 2001). Brown and Gubb (1986) also reported it from mining areas, dry or moist drainage lines and riverbeds, dry floodplains, perennial and episodic riverbanks and sandy areas.
In Tanzania, it has naturalized in lowland tropical forests (Sheil, 1994). In India, it generally occurs in the Himalayas up to elevations of 1800 m, up to 2700 m in Himachal Pradesh (Goor and Barney, 1968; Troup and Joshi, 1981), and altitudes between 700 and 1000 m in Pakistan. In the USA, M. azedarach is able to invade relatively undisturbed floodplain hammocks, marshes, upland woods, scrublands, sandhills, mesic flatwoods, hardwood hammocks, maritime forests, beach dunes, stream and spring shores and ruderal communities in Florida (Langeland et al., 2008). In Texas, riparian woodlands and upland grasslands have also been extensively invaded (Batcher, 2000). In Hawaii, the species has also naturalized on pasture and both disturbed and undisturbed habitats (PIER, 2018).
Habitat List
Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Coastal dunes | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | |
Littoral | Mangroves | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Mangroves | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Mangroves | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | |
Littoral | Salt marshes | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Littoral | Salt marshes | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Littoral | Salt marshes | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
A chromosome number of n = 14 is reported for M. azedarach (Sandhu and Mann, 1988). Substantial variation in growth amongst provenances has been observed (Milimo, 1994).
Reproductive Biology
Melia azedarach is a monoecious species with a combination of perfect and staminate flowers. Self-pollination and cross-pollination have been reported in wild populations. Flowers are fragrant and insect-pollinated. Flowers of several cultivars are self-compatible (Waggy, 2009). Seed production is prolific and seedlings are able to establish below the canopy of the parent plant (Brown and Gubb, 1986). There are 1400-3500 fruit per kg (air dried) and 4000-13,000 seeds per kg (National Academy of Sciences, 1983). The seeds may retain their viability for at least 26 months (Batcher, 2000).
Physiology and Phenology
Melia azedarach is a fast-growing tree. It may start its reproductive activity when individuals are still very young and have just reached the size of a small shrub (Batcher, 2000). It flowers throughout the year (Weber, 2003). According to Orwa et al. (2009), flowering occurs during March-May in the northern hemisphere, with some forms flowering throughout the summer. M. azedarach is usually deciduous during winter except in some humid tropical locations like Malaysia and Tonga where it is evergreen (Ahmed and Idris, 1997). In India, old leaves are shed during November-December with a new flush from March-May (Troup, 1921), whilst in Australia leaf fall commences in autumn with complete leaf shed by winter (March-June) (Moncur and Gunn, 1990). Flowers in India appear from March to April with fruit ripening during winter (December-January) and remaining on the tree in yellow clusters during the next flowering season (Troup, 1921; Gupta, 1993). In Australia, flowering occurs in spring (July-September) with seed set between March and June (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). In Brazil, flowering occurs during September-October and fruiting December-May.
Longevity
Melia azedarach is a perennial long-lived tree. It can reach 6-8 m in height within 4 or 5 years, with a possible maximum height of 20 m. This species is able to produce flowers and fruit when plants are just 3 to 4 years old (Batcher, 2000; Waggy, 2009).
Associations
Melia azedarach is commonly associated with early successional species. In North America, it can grow in association with species of Pinus, Quercus, Carya and Populus. In Mississippi and Alabama in the USA, saplings of M. azedarach serve as a host for the ambrosia beetle, Xylosandrus mutilatus [Cnestus mutilatus] (Waggy, 2009). In tropical Asia, it often grows in seasonal forests, bamboo thickets and Tamarindus forests (Orwa et al., 2009), and in Eucalyptus woodlands in Australia (Ahmed and Idris, 1997).
Environmental Requirements
Melia azedarach is highly adaptable and tolerates a wide range of climatic and soil conditions. It can be found in tropical, sub-tropical and warm-temperate climates mostly associated with seasonally dry conditions. Ahmed and Idris (1997) provide climatic indicators for this species: mean maximum temperature of the hottest month may reach 39°C, and the mean minimum temperature of the coldest month is -5°C. Young trees are frost tender, but older trees resist frost (to a minimum of -15°C). The species is drought hardy, tolerating annual rainfall ranging from (385-) 600 to 2000 (~2400) mm. Where rainfall is less than 600 mm, as in parts of the Middle East, it performs well on wet soils along rivers and under irrigation (Ahmed and Idris, 1997).
It grows on a wide range of soils, but prefers well-drained, deep, sandy loam; shallow gravelly soils stunt the growth (National Academy of Sciences, 1983; Gupta, 1993). It tolerates shallow soils, saline and strongly alkaline soils, but not very acid soils. It can also be found on poor, marginal, sloping and stony ground, even in crevices and sheer rock.
Vegetation Types
deciduous forests
rain forests
riparian forests
savannas
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
35 | 34 | 0 | 1800 |
Air Temperature
Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature | -15 | |
Mean annual temperature | 23 | 26 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month | 26 | 39 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month | -5 | 11 |
Rainfall
Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 4 | 8 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 600 | 2400 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Bimodal
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > Light
Soil reaction > Acid
Soil reaction > Neutral
Soil reaction > Alkaline
Soil drainage > Free
Special soil tolerances > Saline
Special soil tolerances > Shallow
Soil Types
acid soils
alluvial soils
gravelly soils
red soils
sandstone soils
sandy soils
Notes on Pests
Diseases
Melia azedarach is generally unaffected by pests and diseases in dry, subtropical regions (Ahmed and Idris, 1997). Bacterial and fungal diseases have been observed on leaves, twigs and fruit but no serious damage is reported.
The following root rot fungi have been reported on M. azedarach: Ganoderma lucidum from Bihar, India; G. pseudoferreum [G. philippii] from the East Indies; Fomes lamaënsis from Taiwan, causing brown root rot; Helicobasidium purpureum [H. brebissonii] from the USA; and Phymatotrichum ominivorum [Phymatotrichopsis omnivora] from the USA (Bagchee and Singh, 1954; Spaulding, 1958, 1961).
Corticium salmonicolor causes stem and twig cankers and girdling of trees. It is highly susceptible to the diseases in high rainfall areas. Other canker and twig blight fungi recorded are Phytophthora parasitica [P. nicotianae] from Argentina; Hendersonula toruloidea [Nattrassia mangiferae] from Pakistan; and Nectria cinnabarina, N. coccinea, Physalospora abdita, P. rhodina [Botryosphaeria rhodina], Botryosphaeria obtusa, B. ribis and Fusarium lateritium [Gibberella baccata], causing leaf and twig blight, Glomerella cingulata causing anthracnose and Corticium koleroga causing thread blight, from the USA (Spaulding, 1958, 1961; Browne, 1968). Fomes conchatus [Phellinus conchatus] from South Africa and Fomes senex from Taiwan and India are reported to cause heart rot (Spaulding, 1961).
Three species of Cercospora have been recorded on M. azedarach, namely, C. leucosticta from India, C. meliae from China, India and Taiwan, and C. subsessillis (Pseudocercospora subsessillis] from Sudan, India, Philippines and Dominican Republic (Spaulding, 1961; Browne, 1968). Sehgal et al. (1989) also reported leaf spot diseases in the mid-western Himalayas. The powdery mildew Phyllactinia guttata has been recorded from China (Spaulding, 1961).
The downy mildew Pseudoperonospora portoricensis forms irregular downy diffuse and yellow areas on the lower leaf surfaces causing premature defoliation in Puetro Rico and the Dominican Republic (Spaulding, 1961). Other fungi recorded on the leaves are Gloeosporium meliicola from Argentia, causing anthracnose, Phyllosticta azedarachis and P. meliae, both from the USA, causing leaf spots, Septoria meliae from India and Tanzania causing circular white spots and Sphaceloma meliae from Argentina, causing leaf spots and branch lesions (Fresa, 1958; Spaulding, 1961; Sohi and Nayar, 1971).
A witches' broom type of growth deformity, thought to be caused by a mycoplasma, was observed in plantations of M. azedarach during the 1980s in Paraguay (Brune, 1989).
Insects
Melia azedarach var. australasica is subject to periodic defoliation by the larvae of the white cedar moth (Leptocneria reducta) and a spider mite (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). In field trials conducted near Gympie in south-eastern Queensland, Australia, Ryan and Bell (1989) reported that a number of woody species including M. azedarach var. australasica suffered frequent and extensive defoliation by insects.
Parasitic Plants
Six species of phanerogamic parasites are recorded on M. azedarach: Dendrophthoe falcata; Helixanthera ligustrina from India killing branches and sometimes the tree; Loranthus corynitis; L. umbellifer from India; Phragmanthera incana from Nigeria; and Tapinanthus pentagonia from Nigeria (Browne, 1968).
Abiotic Stress
The roots are chiefly superficial and the tree is liable to be blown down under strong winds. M. azedarach suffers from varying degrees of frost.
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
Melia azedarach is generally unaffected by herbivores and pathogens (Ahmed and Idris, 1997). Fungi that cause brownish butt rot and brownish pocket rot attack trees (Orwa et al., 2009). It is subject to periodic defoliation by the larvae of the white cedar moth (Leptocneria reducta) and a spider mite (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). During the 1980s in Paraguay, a witches' broom type of growth deformity in plantations of M. azedarach developed due to infection by a mycoplasma (Brune, 1989). In Mississippi and Alabama (USA), saplings of M. azedarach are the host of the ambrosia beetle Xylosandrus mutilatus [Cnestus mutilatus] (Waggy, 2009).
Natural enemies
Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cnestus mutilatus | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
Leptocneria reducta | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific |
Impact Summary
Category | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Human health | Positive and negative |
Impact
No precise information is available but control of M. azedarach is expensive, making some techniques impractical.
Impact: Environmental
Impact on Habitats
Melia azedarach is a rapidly growing species with the potential to form dense monospecific stands that outcompete native vegetation and prevent the natural regeneration of native species in the understorey and canopy levels (Weber, 2003). This species is able to invade disturbed and relatively undisturbed natural areas changing the species richness and native biodiversity of invaded areas. M. azedarach also alters the nutrient cycling and the soil chemistry of areas invaded. Its leaf litter can increase the pH of soils and add nitrogen, significantly altering soil chemistry. The decaying leaf litter may enhance the soil concentration of mineralizable nitrogen by an amount comparable to nitrogen-fixing legumes (Batcher, 2000; Sankaran and Suresh, 2013; GISD, 2018). In Brazil, M. azedarach outcompetes native fruit-bearing species and in areas highly invaded, it alters the availability of resources (i.e. fruits) for the native fauna (I3N-Brasil, 2018).
Impact on Biodiversity
Melia azedarach is regarded as an environmental weed in south-eastern Western Australia and the southern parts of the Northern Territory. It is also listed as an environmental weed in South Australia, Victoria and those parts of New South Wales that are outside its native range. It is listed as ‘problematic’ on Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and Christmas Island (PIER, 2018; Queensland Government, 2018).
In South Africa, M. azedarach is designated a category 3 invader and considered a habitat transformer (Henderson, 2001). It competes with and replaces native species. Dense stands along watercourses are likely to reduce stream flow. The effective seed dispersal by water enables this species to invade protected areas far from the parent plant (Invasive Species South Africa, 2018). It is apparently one of the most widespread invasive plants in the Transvaal (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). A survey of the Orange River (Henderson, 1992) and the Transvaal (Henderson and Musil, 1984) recorded that M. azedarach was a major invasive species with particular concern along perennial riverbanks (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). Elsewhere in Africa it has shown invasive activity in Botswana (Buss, 2002) and Zimbabwe (Nyoka, 2002). It is also listed as invasive in parts of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, where it is found invading lowland tropical forests (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018).
In the Caribbean, M. azedarach is listed as invasive in Anguilla, Bermuda, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, the Bahamas and the Virgin Islands where it is displacing native vegetation and invading undisturbed forests (Kairo et al., 2003; Connor, 2008; Mir, 2012; Oviedo Príeto and González-Oliva, 2015; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015; GISD, 2018).
In the USA, it is a serious weed in Florida where it has been documented invading scrubs, sandhills, mesic flatwoods, hardwood hammocks, maritime forests, beach dunes, stream and spring shores and ruderal communities (Westbrooks, 1998; Langeland et al., 2008).
It has also been reported invading riparian and floodplain forests in Georgia, Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi and Texas (Langeland and Burks, 1998; Langeland et al., 2008; Waggy, 2009; USDA-NRCS, 2018).
Impact: Biodiversity
M. azedarach is a rapidly growing species that is able to form thick monospecific stands which prevent the regeneration of native plants (Weber, 2003).
Threatened Species
Threatened species | Where threatened | Mechanisms | References | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nototrichium humile (kaala rockwort) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | National Tropical Botanical Garden (2007), US Fish and Wildlife Service (2008) | |
Peucedanum sandwicense (makou) | Hawaii | Competition - smothering | ||
Plantago hawaiensis (Hawai'i plantain) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
Pteralyxia kauaiensis (Kauai pteralyxia) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources | US Fish and Wildlife Service (1995), US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010a) | |
Schiedea hookeri (sprawling schiedea) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
Spermolepis hawaiiensis (Hawaii scaleseed) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Ecosystem change / habitat alteration |
Impact: Social
Melia azedarach flowers are a respiratory irritant and the leaves, bark, flowers and fruit are poisonous to animals (sheep, pigs, cattle and dogs) and humans (Ottino and Renner, 1997; Henderson, 2001). The flowers may cause discomfort to asthma sufferers, and the wood dust can induce dermatitis (Cunningham et al., 1992).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Tolerant of shade
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Gregarious
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Reproduces asexually
Impact outcomes
Altered trophic level
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts human health
Negatively impacts animal health
Reduced amenity values
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Causes allergic responses
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Competition - smothering
Poisoning
Rapid growth
Rooting
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Economic Value
Melia azedarach is a useful tree for farm and amenity planting, shade, including areas subject to drought conditions. It is often planted in arid and semi-arid parts of the world where it is very difficult to successfully grow trees (Milimo, 1994; 1995). Worldwide, it is one of the most common trees found in home gardens and it is frequently cultivated along roadsides. It is also suitable for use in windbreaks and in avenue plantings (Orwa et al., 2009).
It is used as an intercropping tree in cassava, sugarcane, maize, bananas, pineapple and other crops. In the Philippines it is planted as a shade tree in coffee and abaca (Musa textilis) crops (Ahmed and Idris, 1997). In Thailand and India, it is used in reforestation programmes and for erosion control in dry, eroded hill slopes (Troup and Joshi, 1981).
The timber is soft, pinkish to yellow-brown resembling mahogany, with prominent growth rings that give it a fairly decorative appearance (Anderson, 1993). The wood is relatively strong, easily worked and light in weight (Keating and Bolza, 1982). In Australia, the species has been used for framing and boards, flooring, cabinet work, fixtures and interior joinery (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). Under tropical conditions in the Americas, it has been grown for the production of fibreboard (Pennington et al., 1981). It is utilized for panelling in Sri Lanka and is important in the sporting goods industry of Pakistan. In Thailand, the wood is used for the manufacture of hardboard and plywood (Simsiri and Namsawath, 1993). It is a good species for domestic fuelwood (Keating and Bolza, 1982).
Melia azedarach contains compounds with anti-feedant and growth-disruption properties in insects. The main bioactive compounds are azadirachtin, salannin and meliantriol (Milimo, 1994; 1995). Extracts from M. azedarach have been shown to possess insecticidal effects (Nardo et al., 1997; Valladares et al., 1999; Abou-Fakhr Hammad et al., 2000a, b; 2001; Jazzar and Abou-Fakhr Hammad, 2003). Gupta (1993) reports that the leaves, bark and fruits are placed inside books and woollen garments to repel insects. It is also used in traditional medicine for its anthelmintic, anti-malarial, cathartic and emetic properties and also used to treat skin diseases (Orwa et al., 2009).
The seeds contain oil high in linoleic acid (65-82%) utilized for the elaboration of soap and hair oil. The flowers are attractive to bees for pollen and honey (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). Anderson (1993) records that the Aborigines of the Tully River area of north Queensland in Australia, used the bruised bark and leaves as fish poison, which was reported to act fairly rapidly. Gupta (1993) reports that a form of whisky is made from the fruits. The stone of the fruits is used as a bead in necklaces and rosaries.
Uses List
Environmental > Agroforestry
Environmental > Shade and shelter
Environmental > Soil conservation
Environmental > Windbreak
Materials > Carved material
Materials > Essential oils
Materials > Miscellaneous materials
Materials > Pesticide
Materials > Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Fuels > Fuelwood
Human food and beverage > Honey/honey flora
Human food and beverage > Spices and culinary herbs
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Fodder/animal feed
Ornamental > Garden plant
Wood Products
Roundwood > Roundwood structures
Sawn or hewn building timbers > Carpentry/joinery (exterior/interior)
Sawn or hewn building timbers > Exterior fittings
Sawn or hewn building timbers > Flooring
Sawn or hewn building timbers > For light construction
Containers > Crates
Woodware > Industrial and domestic woodware
Woodware > Tool handles
Woodware > Toys
Woodware > Wood carvings
Wood-based materials > Plywood
Other > Furniture
Other > Veneers
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures
Grazing by cattle is effective in controlling spread (Sankaran and Suresh, 2013).
Physical/Mechanical Control
Seedlings and small infestations of M. azedarach can be removed by hand, but larger plants and mature trees need to be treated with a combination of mechanical and chemical methods due to the ability of this species to resprout from both root and stem suckers (Weber, 2003). Grazing by cattle is effective in controlling spread (Sankaran and Suresh, 2013).
Chemical Control
Herbicides such as triclopyr, Garlon 4 and Garlon 3 have been used to control mature tree and large infestations of M. azedarach. Effective modes of applications include basal bark treatment, foliar application and pasting herbicides onto cut stumps (girdle or frill method) (Weber, 2003; GISD, 2018). Treatments may need to be repeated until all of the plants are removed.
Silviculture Characteristics
Under optimal conditions M. azedarach is a fast growing tree. It is light demanding, fairly drought tolerant, can be irrigated in hot dry areas, is fairly tolerant of salinity (Zwar, 1975) and frost, and withstands moderate coastal exposure (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). The tree can be pollarded, root suckers and coppices vigorously (Troup, 1921; Ryan and Bell, 1989; Gupta, 1993). It is fire sensitive to the extent that even 10 m tall trees can be killed by ground fire.
Silviculture Characteristics
Tolerates > drought
Tolerates > waterlogging
Tolerates > shade
Tolerates > frost
Ability to > sucker
Ability to > regenerate rapidly
Ability to > coppice
Ability to > pollard
Silviculture Practice
Seed treatment and germination:
Melia azedarach can be propagated from seed, which is produced in abundance nearly every year, or from cuttings, grafting, stumps or air layering. Following collection, the fruit is allowed to soak for 1-2 days until the pulp becomes soft then macerated to remove the pulp. After maceration the seeds are washed, cleaned and allowed to surface dry before storage.
National Academy of Sciences (1983) indicate that the fruit can be sown without any processing. Because of the presence of embryo-coat dormancy in M. azedarach var. australasica (Moncur et al., 1990), endocarp removal followed by seed-coat scarification (slitting) is recommended to promote rapid germination (Milimo, 1994). In Sri Lanka, germination was substantially increased by first removing the pericarp after it had rotted followed by a two-week soak and drying process (Tilakaratna, 1991). Soaking the seed in 80°C water for 30 min is a recommended pretreatment in Thailand (Simsiri and Namsawath, 1993). There are between 1400 and 3500 fruit per kg (air dried) and 4000 to 13,000 seeds per kg (National Academy of Sciences, 1983). Viability is best maintained in airtight containers in cold storage at 3-5°C. Campbell (1980) reports that viability is maintained for up to 5 years in sealed containers with a germination of 80% after 12 months and 20% after 5 years.
In addition to seed, the species can be readily propagated by cuttings, root suckers and air layering (Ahmed and Idris, 1997). Gupta et al. (1989) found that striking cuttings in February using an application of indole butyric acid (IBA) at the rate of 50 ppm increased the strike rate.
Nursery practice:
In India, sowing is done in nursery beds at a spacing of 15 cm x 2.5 cm in full sun and seed kept under cover to a depth of 2 cm (Gupta, 1993). Germination starts in about 3 weeks and may take a further 3 weeks to complete. When seedlings are 7-10 cm tall they are transplanted in nursery beds and left before being planted out in winter when leafless. In Nepal fruit is collected from December through to March (depending on provenance). Once the flesh has been removed, the nuts are dried, then sown in open beds before the end of April. After 2-3 weeks the seedlings (now 2-4 cm high), are pricked out into containers. As the seedlings grow very fast they can be planted out in June-July after 4 months in the nursery. At this stage they will have reached 20 cm in height (Campbell, 1980).
Planting:
One year-old seedling stock are preferred for planting in temperate climates, while 6-month-old seedlings are used in the tropics (National Academy of Sciences, 1983). During winter dormancy, seedlings of M. azedarach may be easily stored by placing the plants in a trench, with the root collar about 5 cm below the ground (Goor and Barney, 1968). Lifting, transporting and planting of deciduous stock should be completed before leaf flush in spring. In India, the seedlings are planted in pits in July or winter when leafless.
Stumps prepared from 15-month old seedlings are planted in the same way (Gupta, 1993). Seedling development is stimulated by weeding and demands full sunlight for best results. In India, young plants are subject to browsing by deer (Troup, 1921). Irrigation may be required on harsh sites to ensure good survival and acceptable growth rates.
In Paraguay where M. azedarach is grown in small woodlots for timber, the tree is inter-planted with a variety of food crops. It is planted at a spacing of 4 m x 3 m, thinned after 3 years to 400 trees/ha and after 6 years to 200 trees/ha (Ahmed and Idris, 1997).
Ryan and Bell (1989) reported on a trial conducted in southeast Queensland which included M. azedarach. The site was cleared of standing vegetation then ploughed to a depth of 30 cm and reploughed prior to planting. Mounds were also constructed to aid in drainage. Planting stock was initially raised in 50-70 ml tubes or net pots then repotted into 200 ml tubes where necessary. Plants were established at 3 m x 2 m spacing. Fertilizer was applied and spot weeding carried out round each plant. Results after 18 months averaged over two sites were: height 2.6 m, 100% survival and good coppice response following cutting at 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 m above ground.
Under plantation conditions, M. azedarach requires thinning from an early stage to prevent competition which results in small diameter boles. M. azedarach has the ability to self prune. However, under plantation conditions, lower branches may require to be removed where access is restricted or there is the risk of fire. The tree coppices well and throws up root-suckers, especially where the roots are exposed or injured.
Pollarding of M. azedarach for fuelwood and poles is usually done on 5-10 year old trees (Ahmed and Idris, 1997). Trees damaged by wind or lopped high on the bole produce large numbers of shoots from dormant buds on the stem (Troup, 1921).
Silviculture Practice
Seed storage > recalcitrant
Seed storage > intermediate
Vegetative propagation by > stump plants
Stand establishment using > natural regeneration
Stand establishment using > direct sowing
Stand establishment using > planting stock
Management
Under favourable conditions, M. azedarach grows fast (National Academy of Sciences, 1983), for example, in Uganda it can grow up to 1.7 m in height per year. Growth is reported to slow down before large dimensions are attained resulting in trees being grown on short rotations.
Troup (1921) provides the following information on the performance of M. azedarach at Dehra Dun, Uttar Pradesh, India. The growth during the second season reaches a height of 1.5 to 2.4 m if regular weeding and watering are carried whilst the tap root reaches a length of 0.6-0.9 m. Under natural conditions trees may reach a maximum height of about 3 m by the end of the third season.
Patel and Singh (1996) provide information on an agroforestry tree species trials carried out in the semi-arid zone of southern Saurashtra region of Gujarat, India in which cultural operations including irrigation, weeding, cultivation and fertilizer were applied. M. azedarach was one of the best performers in terms of survival (97%) and growth after 2.5 years (8.8 m tall and 19 cm diameter). Plantations of M. azedarach in eastern Thailand (1600 mm rainfall) produced very fast growth attaining a mean height of 10 m and mean diameter of 12 cm in 3 years (Simsiri and Namsawath, 1993).
It is also a proven agroforestry species in rice/wheat cropping systems of Bangladesh, where it is among the fastest-growing trees with the lowest impact on undercrops owing to its leaflessness during the cropping season.
Genetic Resources and Breeding
Provenances
In trials in southeastern Queensland, Australia, a single provenance from the Atherton Tableland gave 91% survival and grew to an average of 4.7 m tall and 9.5 cm basal diameter in 4.5 years (Ryan and Bell, 1991). Substantial variation in growth amongst provenances was noted in field and glasshouse trials (Milimo, 1994).
In Thailand, the Atherton Tableland provenance out-performed a provenance from Mt Garnet, giving a range of MAI for height growth of 0.9-2.6 m. This was comparable to the growth of the local M. azedarach and Azadirachta indica (Pinyopusarerk, 1989).
Tree breeding and hybridization
No substantial germplasm collections of M. azedarach are known to exist. Neither are any breeding programmes known (Ahmed and Idris, 1997). Breeding work may lead to e.g. improved burning quality, drought tolerance, higher fruit and oil yield and further developments with insecticidal properties and the possible variation that may exist between populations and varieties. It would be useful to determine whether variants with non-toxic fruit exist.
Disadvantages
Melia azedarach regenerates rapidly from seed and by suckering giving rise to its potential as a weed. In South Africa a survey on the Orange River (Henderson, 1992) and in the Transvaal (Henderson and Musil, 1984) recorded that M. azedarach was a major invasive species with particular concern along perennial riverbanks.
The fruits of M. azedarach are poisonous although not all trees are reported to produce toxic fruit (Anderson, 1993). Most cases of poisoning have been in pigs (Everist, 1974; Ottino and Renner, 1997) but there are also reports of poisoning in sheep, cattle and dogs. Ahmed and Idris (1997) reports that the fruits are toxic to warm-blooded animals. Poisoning has also been reported in children who have eaten the fruits (Cremer, 1990).
The flowers may cause discomfort to asthma sufferers, and the wood dust can induce dermatitis (Cunningham et al., 1992). Annual lopping of the branches will reduce the danger as flowering is confined to second-year wood. M. azedarach is short lived and after 20 years is reported to start dying (Troup and Joshi, 1981).
Links to Websites
Name | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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