Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover)
Datasheet Types: Invasive species, Host plant, Crop, Pest
Abstract
This datasheet on Melilotus officinalis covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall.
- Preferred Common Name
- yellow sweet clover
- Other Scientific Names
- Medicago officinalis (L.) E.H.L.Krause
- Melilotus arenarius Grecescu
- Melilotus arvensis Wallr.
- Melilotus melilotus-officinalis Asch. & Graebn.
- Melilotus neglectus Ser.
- Melilotus petitpierreanus Willd.
- Trifolium melilotus officinalis L.
- Trifolium officinale L.
- International Common Names
- Englishcommon melilotfield melilotribbed melilotyellow melilotyellow sweetcloveryellow sweet-cloveryellow trefoil
- Spanishcornilla realmeliloto amarillomeliloto de los campostrébol de olortrebol de olor amarillo
- Frenchmelilot des champsmelilot jaunemelilot officinal
- Chinesecao mu xi
- Local Common Names
- CanadaYellow sweet clover
- CubaTorongil For
- Dominican RepublicTrebol de arboltrebol de arbol blanco
- GermanyAcker- HonigkleeEchter Steinkleegelber Steinklee
- Italymeliloto giallo
- Japanseiyō-ebira-hagi
- NetherlandsAkkerhoningklaver
- Portugaltrevo-cheiroso
- SwedenGulmelot
- EPPO code
- MEUOF (Melilotus officinalis)
Pictures
Flowering habit
Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover); flowering habit. Sweetclover in this area is essentially an inhabitant of disturbance-prone settings. Butte County, Idaho, USA. June 2010.
©Prof Matt Lavin-2010/Bozeman, Montana, USA - CC BY-SA 2.0
Flowering habit
Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover); flowering habit. Fresnes-au-Mont, Meuse, France. June 2007.
©Olivier Pichard/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
Flowering habit
Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover); flowering habit. Glogów, SW Poland. June 2015.
©Krzysztof Ziarnek-2015/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 4.0
Flowers
Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover); flowers. Bruchmühlbach-Miesau, Germany. June 2016.
Public Domain - Released by AnRo0002/via wikipedia - CC0
Flower spike
Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover); flower spike. Austria. June 2012.
©Gernot Molitor (Radio Tonreg)/via wikipedia - CC BY 2.0
Leaves
Melilotus officinalis (yellow sweet clover); leaves. The green glabrate succulent leaflets of Melilotus are distinct from the thin textured, dark green and hairly ones of Medicago. Butte County, Idaho, USA. June 2010.
©Prof Matt Lavin-2010/Bozeman, Montana, USA - CC BY-SA 2.0
Summary of Invasiveness
Melilotus officinalis is a herbaceous legume species, native to parts of Asia and possibly Europe (sources differ on this), that has been extensively introduced to be used as a forage and nitrogen-fixing crop. It has escaped from cultivation and become an invasive weed in many temperate and tropical regions; it can also be toxic to livestock. It is a prolific seeder, and its seeds can remain viable in the soil for many years. It is fast-growing and can grow in a wide range of environmental conditions. Like other nitrogen-fixing legumes, M. officinalis has the potential to alter soil conditions and nutrient cycling. It is allelopathic and so forms dense monospecific stands that displace and inhibit the establishment of native vegetation. In North America, infestations reduce the occurrence of natural fires and degrade native grassland communities that depend on frequent fires. In Alaska and Canada, this species is a serious problem on waterways because it is invading glacial river floodplains. Currently, it is recognized as a conservation problem in North America because it is invading critical natural areas such as national parks and protected lands.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The Fabaceae are one of the largest families of flowering plants. This family includes about 745 genera and 19,500 species growing in a great variety of climates and habitats (Stevens, 2012). Melilotus is a small genus of Fabaceae, comprising 22 species of annual, biennial and perennial herbs originally from Europe and Asia, but now found worldwide (The Plant List, 2013). Many members of the genus are common weeds of grasslands and cultivated lands (USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Plant Type
Annual
Biennial
Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Description
Annual, biennial or short-lived perennial herbs, sparsely puberulent to glabrescent. Stems erect, 40-100(-250) cm, longitudinally ridged. Stipules linear-falcate, 3-5(-7) mm, entire or with 1 tooth at base; petiole slender; leaflets obovate, broadly ovate, oblanceolate, to linear, 15-25 (-30) × 5-15 mm, lateral veins running into teeth, 8-12 pairs, margins shallowly serrate. Racemes 6-15 (-20) mm, 30-70-flowered, dense at first, becoming lax in anthesis; bracts equal to pedicels, 1.5-2 mm. Corolla yellow, 4.5-7 mm; standard ± equal to wings and keel. Ovary narrowly ovate; ovules 4-8. Legume ovoid, 3-5 × 2 mm, veins transversely reticulate, dark brown, apex with persistent style. Seeds 1 or 2, yellowish brown, smooth, ovoid, 2.5 mm (Flora of China, 2017).
Distribution
The native distribution range of M. officinalis is still unclear. While some authors consider it to be native to Europe and Asia (USDA-ARS, 2017), others consider it native to Asia and introduced elsewhere (DAISIE, 2018). It has been widely introduced and can currently be found naturalized across Europe, Asia, Africa, the Americas, the West Indies, Australia and New Zealand (DAISIE, 2017; ILDIS, 2017; USDA-NRSC, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Melilotus officinalis has been intentionally introduced into tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world as a forage and nitrogen-fixing crop (FAO, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017), and has often escaped from cultivation.
In North America, the earliest report of Melilotus was made in 1664, although the species was not identified (Turkington et al., 1978). The species M. officinalis was cultivated as a fodder crop in Prince Edward Island before 1850 (Turkington et al., 1978). In the United States, it has been cultivated as a forage crop and soil builder since the early 20th century (Turkington et al., 1978). To date, it is present in all 50 states of the USA and is spreading in western Greenland, and the Yukon and the Northwest Territories in Canada. It has become invasive and is spreading across floodplains in northern Montana, the Yukon region, southern Ontario, the prairies of the Midwestern USA and the Rocky Mountains (Turkington et al., 1978; Wolf et al. 2004; Conn and Seefeldt, 2009; USDA-NRCS, 2017). In Alaska, M. officinalis was introduced in 1913 as a forage and nitrogen-fixing crop. It has since escaped cultivation, invading roadsides, disturbed areas, and the glacial river floodplains of the Stikine, Matanuska, and Nenana rivers (Conn and Seefeldt, 2009).
In China, this species is reported as both native (USDA-ARS, 2017) and introduced. Chen et al. (2013) indicate that it was introduced in the 1980s to improve the production of forage grasses. Currently it is reported as a weed spreading into different ecosystems in at least 22 provinces or municipalities (Chen et al., 2013).
Risk of Introduction
The risk of introduction of Melilotus officinalis is very high. As a plant often considered useful, it has been intentionally introduced to many temperate and tropical regions and has recurrently escaped from cultivation. It is also a prolific seeder, with seeds that remain viable for many years, and well adapted to a wide range of habitats. Therefore, even when its use in agriculture has declined in recent years, the likelihood of it colonizing new areas still remains high.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Melilotus officinalis spreads by seeds. It is a prolific seeder with the potential to produce between 35,000 and 100,000 seeds/plant. Seeds can remain viable in the soil for up to 30 years (Klein, 2011; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
Rainwater runoff and stream flow are the most important means of seed dispersal (Klein, 2011; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Accidental Introduction
Seeds of M. officinalis can be dispersed on vehicle tyres and agricultural machinery and as a contaminant in cereal grains and soil (Klein, 2011; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Intentional Introduction
M. officinalis has been intentionally introduced as a forage crop, a soil builder, and a nectar source for honeybees (Klein, 2011; USDA-ARS, 2017).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Escaped from cultivation | Yes | Yes | |
| Forage (pathway cause) | Often planted as forage crop | Yes | Yes | |
| Habitat restoration and improvement (pathway cause) | Planted as soil improver – nitrogen-fixing species | Yes | Yes | |
| Hitchhiker (pathway cause) | e.g. vehicles, machinery, grain, soil | Yes | Yes | Klein (2011); USDA-NRCS (2017) |
| Medicinal use (pathway cause) | Used as medicinal herb | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | seeds | Yes | Yes | |
| Machinery and equipment (pathway vector) | Seeds as a contaminant | Yes | Yes | |
| Soil, sand and gravel (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Land vehicles (pathway vector) | Seeds as a contaminant | Yes | ||
| Water (pathway vector) | Most important means of seed dispersal | Yes | Klein (2011); USDA-NRCS (2017) |
Hosts/Species Affected
Melilotus officinalis is listed as a weed in farmlands and grasslands in China (Chen et al., 2009). More specifically, in North America it is listed as a problematic weed in canola (oilseed rape) and wheat fields (Turkington et al., 1978; Conn and Seefeldt, 2009).
Host Animals
| Host animal | Context | Life stages | Production systems |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bos indicus (zebu) | |||
| Bos taurus (cattle) | |||
| Capra hircus (goats) | |||
| Ovis aries (sheep) | |||
| Sus scrofa (pigs) |
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
| Host | Family | Host status | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cucumis (melons, cucuimbers, gerkins) | Cucurbitaceae | Unknown | |
| Medicago sativa (lucerne) | Fabaceae | Main | |
| Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Unknown | |
| Triticum (wheat) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Triticum aestivum (wheat) | Poaceae | Unknown |
Growth Stages
Fruiting stage
Flowering stage
Seedling stage
Vegetative growing stage
List of Symptoms/Signs
| Symptom or sign | Life stages | Sign or diagnosis | Disease stage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial animals/Cardiovascular Signs/Tachycardia, rapid pulse, high heart rate | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Cardiovascular Signs/Weak pulse, small pulse | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Anorexia, loss or decreased appetite, not nursing, off feed | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Bloody stools, faeces, haematochezia | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Decreased amount of stools, absent faeces, constipation | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Melena or occult blood in faeces, stools | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Abnormal proprioceptive positioning, knuckling | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Back swelling, mass back region | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Forefoot swelling, mass front foot, feet | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Forelimb lameness, stiffness, limping fore leg | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Forelimb swelling, mass in fore leg joint and/or non-joint area | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Generalized lameness or stiffness, limping | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Generalized weakness, paresis, paralysis | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Haemorrhage of any body part or clotting failure, bleeding | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Head, face, ears, jaw, nose, nasal, swelling, mass | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Hindfoot swelling, mass rear foot, feet | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Hindlimb lameness, stiffness, limping hind leg | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Hindlimb swelling, mass in hind leg joint and/or non-joint area | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Inability to stand, downer, prostration | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Neck swelling, mass cervical region | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Pale mucous membranes or skin, anemia | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Paraparesis, weakness, paralysis both hind limbs | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Petechiae or ecchymoses, bruises, ecchymosis | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Reluctant to move, refusal to move | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Sudden death, found dead | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Swelling skin or subcutaneous, mass, lump, nodule | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Swelling, mass external abdomen | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Thoracic swelling, mass, thorax, chest, ribs, sternum | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Trembling, shivering, fasciculations, chilling | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Dullness, depression, lethargy, depressed, lethargic, listless | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Reproductive Signs/Abortion or weak newborns, stillbirth | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Reproductive Signs/Bloody milk, red, pink, brown milk | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Dyspnea, difficult, open mouth breathing, grunt, gasping | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Epistaxis, nosebleed, nasal haemorrhage, bleeding | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Increased respiratory rate, polypnea, tachypnea, hyperpnea | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Skin/Integumentary Signs/Skin edema | Sign |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Melilotus officinalis can be easily confused with Astragalus spp., Medicago spp., and Trifolium spp. These can be recognized by the following traits:
•
Astragalus spp. have compound leaves with 8-11 pairs of leaflets.
•
Medicago and Trifolium species have three leaflets but the flowers are in round heads.
Melilotus is a small genus comprising only 22 species of herbs; M. officinalis and M. alba are the weedy species with the most extensive distributions. M. alba can be easily distinguished from M. officinalis by its white flowers.
Habitat
Melilotus officinalis can be found growing as a weed in grasslands, disturbed sites, prairies, savannas, dunes, hillsides, ravine shores, roadsides and forest edges (Turkington et al., 1978; Klein, 2011; Flora of China, 2017; Hilty, 2016; USDA-NRCS, 2017). It grows well in direct sunlight and in partially shaded sites (USDA-NRCS, 2017). Although disturbed areas are preferred, it is sufficiently aggressive to invade natural prairie remnants, where it often becomes the dominant species (Riper and Larsob, 2009; Hilty, 2016). It can also be found growing as a weed in pastures, farms and agricultural lands (Chen et al., 2009).
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for the genus Melilotus is n = 8, and a chromosome count of 2n = 16 is reported for M. officinalis (Turkington et al., 1978).
Reproductive Biology
Melilotus officinalis produces numerous hermaphroditic flowers that grow in long slender spike-like clusters. Anthesis is diurnal and the nectar attracts many kinds of insects, including bees, wasps, flies, butterflies and beetles (Hilty, 2016). In North America, this species shows high out-crossing rates and a very low incidence of self-pollination (Klein, 2011). It is a prolific seeder with the potential to produce between 35,000 and 100,000 seeds/plant. Seeds can remain viable in the soil for up to 30 years (Klein, 2011; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Physiology and Phenology
In China, M. officinalis has been recorded flowering from May to September and fruiting from June to October (Flora of China, 2017). In North America it has been recorded flowering from April to September (USDA-NRCS, 2017); in Alaska flowers are produced from June to September (Klein, 2011).
Longevity
M. officinalis is an annual or biennial herb, but under suitable conditions it can also grow as a short-lived perennial (Ogle et al., 2008; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Associations
M. officinalis forms a symbiotic association with Rhizobium bacteria (Hilty, 2016; USDA-NRCS, 2017). The caterpillars of various Phoebis butterflies and Hemiargus isola [Echinargus isola] eat the foliage, flowers, or buds. The caterpillars of the moth Walshia miscecolorella [Mompha amorphella] bore into the stems and roots (Hilty, 2016). A variety of insects are attracted to the flowers – see above under Reproductive Biology.
Environmental Requirements
M. officinalis is well adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, but prefers full or partial sun and moist to slightly dry conditions (Hilty, 2016). It is commonly found on calcareous soils and grow best on rich loams and clay loams with pH levels of 5 or higher. It is tolerant of fire and high alkaline and saline soils (Ghaderi-Far et al., 2010; Klein, 2011; USDA-NRCS, 2017). It is drought-tolerant once established, only requiring enough moisture for establishment (see next paragraph), after which plants are able to survive under extremely dry conditions (Turkington et al., 1978; Ghaderi-Far et al., 2010). In Alaska, it occurs in sites with less than 170 mm annual precipitation and wintertime temperatures as low as -50°C (Conn and Seefeldt, 2009).
Ghaderi-Far et al. (2010) studied seed germination in particular. Laboratory and greenhouse germination experiments showed that germination is sensitive to drought stress and completely inhibited at a potential of -1 MPa. However, it is tolerant to salinity -- salinity stress up to 90 mM has no effect on seed germination. Percentages of seed germination >92% have been observed at pH = 5-6, declining to 80% at pH 4 and to 42% at pH 9. The base, optimum and ceiling germination temperatures reported are 0ºC, 18ºC and 34ºC, respectively.
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Tolerated | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated | |
| BS - Steppe climate | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | Tolerated | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Preferred | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Preferred | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Preferred | |
| Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | Preferred | |
| Dw - Continental climate with dry winter | Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters) | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 67 | 45 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute minimum temperature | -50 | |
| Mean annual temperature | 10 | 25 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall | ||
| Mean annual rainfall | <170 | >1000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Bimodal
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > alkaline
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil reaction > very alkaline
Soil drainage > free
Special soil tolerances > saline
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
The main diseases and herbivores affecting Melilotus officinalis, according to FAO (2017), are:
•
rot (Sclerotinia trifoliorum)
•
spring black stem (Ascochyta meliloti)
•
summer black stem (Cercospora davisii)
•
stem canker (Ascochyta caulicola)
•
root rot (Phytophthora cactorum)
•
caterpillars of Hemiargus isola [Echinargus isola]
•
caterpillars Walshia miscecolorella [Mompha amorphella]
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sclerotinia trifoliorum (rot of clover) | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
| Ascochyta meliloti | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
| Cercospora davisii | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
| Ascochyta caulicola | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
| Phytophthora cactorum (apple collar rot) | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
| Echinargus isola | Herbivore | not specific | ||||
| Mompha amorphella | Herbivore | not specific |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Positive and negative | |
| Positive and negative | |
| Positive |
Impact: Economic
Improperly cured forage from Melilotus officinalis can be toxic to livestock (USDA-ARS, 2017). The species is also a problematic weed in canola and wheat fields (Turkington et al., 1978; Ghaderi-Far et al., 2010; USDA-NRCS, 2017), and is listed as a noxious weed in Canada and the USA.
Impact: Environmental
Impact on Habitats
Melilotus officinalis is an aggressive allelopathic weed that forms dense monospecific stands that displace and inhibit the establishment of native vegetation (Klein, 2011; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
As a nitrogen-fixing legume with large taproots, it has the potential to alter soil conditions and nutrient cycling. In invaded ecosystems, changes in the nitrogen distribution may ultimately shift the composition and structure of native plant communities (Wolf et al., 2004).
It can also reduce light and soil moisture levels in highly invaded areas (YISC, undated; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
It also alters the frequency of natural fires in invaded ecosystems. In North America, it is reduces the occurrence of natural fires and consequently degrades native grassland communities that depend on recurrent fires (USDA-NRCS, 2017).
Ecosystems invaded by M. officinalis include Alaska glacial river floodplains and roadsides adjacent to natural areas (Conn and Seefeldt, 2009; USDA-NRCS, 2017), prairies across Canada, and national parks and protected areas in the United States such as the Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado, the Badlands National Park and the North American Great Plains (Wolf and Rohrs, 2001; Wolf et al., 2004; Riper and Larsob, 2009; YISC, undated).
Impact on Biodiversity
Melilotus officinalis is an aggressive weed with the potential to strongly decrease the diversity and abundance of all other native and alien plant species (Conn and Seefeldt, 2009; Wolf and Rohrs, 2001; Wolf et al., 2004; Riper and Larsob, 2009; YISC, undated; USDA-NRCS, 2017). For more information on its effects on their habitats, see above under 'Impact on Habitats'.
Impact: Social
Melilotus officinalis can form dense and tall thickets that often cover guide rails and sign posts, creating a hazard for motorists (Turkington et al., 1978).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Gregarious
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Impact outcomes
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of fire regime
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts animal health
Reduced amenity values
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Allelopathic
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Competition - smothering
Poisoning
Rapid growth
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Melilotus officinalis has been planted as a forage and nitrogen-fixing crop, as a green manure for soil improvement and as a valuable plant for honey production (Turkington et al., 1978; USDA-ARS, 2017). In North America it has been extensively used for soil stabilization and reclamation projects (Ogle et al., 2008). It is also used for hay, silage or pasture. It is, however, less palatable than many other legumes because of its bitter taste caused by the chemical coumarin in the tissues.
In the chemical industry, dicoumarol is extracted from this species, for use as a blood thinner and anticoagulant in rat and mouse poisons and also for treating human ailments (Ogle et al., 2008; USDA-NRCS, 2017).
The flowers and seeds of M. officinalis are sometimes used as a food flavouring (Xi'an Pincredit, 2018).
Uses List
Environmental > Soil improvement
Human food and beverage > Honey/honey flora
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Fodder/animal feed
Environmental > Erosion control or dune stabilization
Environmental > Land reclamation
Materials > Chemicals
Materials > Green manure
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Human food and beverage > Food additive
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Forage
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/mechanical control
Small infestations of Melilotus officinalis may be controlled by hand pulling before seeds are set, and mowing close to the ground. The stands should be cut just before flowering, and checked a week later for missed or partly cut plants (USDA-NRCS, 2017). Pulling or cutting will have to be repeated over a number of years to deplete the seed bank (YISC, undated).
Chemical control
Herbicides such as chlorsulfuron, 2,4-DB, clopyralid, triclopyr, and 2,4-D have been recommended for the control of M. officinalis (Conn and Seefeldt, 2009).
IPM
Several studies have shown that an integrated approach using herbicides together with non-chemical means might be the most effective for control in the long term (Conn and Seefeldt, 2009; YISC, undated; USDA-NRCS, 2017). Because seeds remain viable for a long time, treated sites should be monitored for several years following control actions.
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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References
Acevedo-Rodríguez P, Strong MT, 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Washington DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution, 1192 pp. [Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, 98] http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Chen C, Huang D, Zhang Y, Zheng H, Wang K, 2013. Invasion of farmland-grassland ecosystems by the exotic sweet clovers, Melilotus officinalis and M. albus. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, 11:1012-1016.
Chen H, Zhao Y, Hu L, 2009. Eco-productive Paradigm for Farming-pastoral Zone in North China. Beijing, China: China Agriculture Press.
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