Phalaris canariensis (canary grass)
Publication: CABI Compendium
Datasheet Types: Crop, Documented species, Pest, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Phalaris canariensis covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Phalaris canariensis L.
- Preferred Common Name
- canary grass
- Other Scientific Names
- Phalaris aquatica Delile ex Boiss.
- Phalaris avicularis Salisb.
- International Common Names
- Englishannual canarygrasscommon canary grasscommon canarygrassseed canary grass
- Spanishalpistealpiste blancoalpiste bravoalpiste de pájarosalpiste de pellaalpiste vanilloalpiste vanoalpistera rabillo de cordero rabos de cordero trigueragrano de canarias
- Frenchalpiste des Canaries
- Portuguesealpista
- Local Common Names
- Chinajia na li ge cao
- Denmarkalmindelig kanariegræs
- Estoniakanaari paelrohi
- GermanyKanariengraskanarisches Glanzgras
- Italycanariascagliola
- Japankanarii-kusa-yoshikanarikusayoshiyarikusayoshi
- Latviakanāriju spulgzāle
- Lithuaniakanarinis strypainis
- Netherlandskanariegras
- Portugalalpistealpistrealpistula
- South Africagewone kanariegras
- Swedenkanariegraeskanariegräs
- EPPO code
- PHACA (Phalaris canariensis)
Pictures
Plant
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Plant. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Plant
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Plant. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Panicle
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Panicle. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Panicle
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Panicle. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Panicle
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Panicle. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Panicle
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Panicle. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Roots
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Roots. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Stem
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Stem with leaf sheath and ligule. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Stem
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Stem with leaf sheath and ligule. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Panicle
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Panicle detail. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Panicle
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Panicle detail. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Spikelet
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Spikelet. Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Spikelet
Phalaris canariensis (Canarygrass); Spikelet labelled with Glumae (Glu), Lemmata (Lem - first two are sterile) and Palea (Pal). Draugasse, Floridsdorf, Vienna, Austria. June 2019.
©Stefan Lefnaer (Stefan.lefnaer)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Taxonomic Tree
- Domain
- Eukaryota
- Kingdom
- Plantae
- Phylum
- Spermatophyta
- Subphylum
- Angiospermae
- Class
- Monocotyledonae
- Order
- Cyperales
- Family
- Poaceae
- Genus
- Phalaris
- Species
- Phalaris canariensis
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The genus Phalaris has had a complicated taxonomic and nomenclatural history which has influenced the number of taxa included in it (Baldini, 1993). Anderson (1961) recognized 15 species while a taxonomic revision of the genus by Baldini (1995) recognized 22 which includes some hybrids. Currently, 19 species are recognized under this genus (World Flora Online, 2020). P. canariensis belongs to the family Poaceae, subfamily Pooideae, tribe Aveneae, subtribe Phalaridinae (Clayton and Renvoize, 1986). There are many commercial cultivars for this species and varieties for ornamental use.
Plant Type
Annual
Grass / sedge
Seed / spore propagated
Summary of Invasiveness
Phalaris canariensis is an annual grass widely grown commercially in various parts of the world, almost exclusively for the use of the seed for feeding ornamental birds, for hay and forage for animal feed and as an ornamental grass. The only species of its genus grown for grain production, it is recorded as adventive in most warm-temperate countries, but casual and rarely persisting. P. canariensis is described as persistent to established and potentially invasive in the Eastern Alps, in Austria, Germany, Italy, Slovenia and Switzerland. It is recorded as invasive within some protected areas (national parks) in the USA (North Carolina, Tennessee and California), without details on impact. It is listed as an agricultural and environmental weed in the Global Compendium of Weeds.
Description
The following description is from Clayton et al. (2016):
Annual; caespitose. Culms erect, or geniculately ascending; 20-120 cm long. Leaves cauline. Ligule an eciliate membrane; 3-8 mm long. Leaf-blades 5-25 cm long; 4-12 mm wide. Inflorescence a panicle which can be spiciform, or capitate; ovate; 1.5-6 cm long; 1.2-2.2 cm wide. Spikelets solitary and sessile. Fertile spikelets comprising two basal sterile florets; one fertile floret; without rhachilla extension. Spikelets obovate; laterally compressed; compressed strongly; 6-10 mm long; breaking up at maturity; disarticulating below each fertile floret. Glumes persistent; similar; exceeding apex of florets; thinner than fertile lemma. Lower glume chartaceous, asperulous, pubescent, elliptic, acute, 6-10 mm long, one length of upper glume, 1-keeled, winged above on keel, 3-5-veined. Upper glume chartaceous, asperulous, pubescent, elliptic, acute, 6-10 mm long, 1.3-1.6 length of adjacent fertile lemma, 1-keeled; keel winged above, 3-5-veined. Florets similar; lodicules 2, membranous; basal florets sterile without a significant palea, attached to and deciduous with the fertile floret. Lemma of lower sterile floret membranous, glabrous, lanceolate, acute, 3-4.5 mm long, 0.5-0.75 length of fertile lemma. Fertile lemma pubescent, cartilaginous, shiny, laterally compressed, elliptic, acute; 5-6 mm long, keeled, 5-veined; palea dorsally pubescent, cartilaginous, 2-veined, without keels. Anthers 3; 3-4 mm long. Ovary glabrous. Fruit a caryopsis with adherent pericarp and a linear hilum.
List of Pests
Distribution
Described as native to Macaronesia and probably north-west Africa and southern Europe, P. canariensis is now introduced and naturalized in so many countries (AusGrass2, 2015) that its exact native range is uncertain. This species is present in the temperate climates of Europe, North and South Africa, Macaronesia, western Indian Ocean, North and Western Asia, India, Indo-China and Papuasia, Australasia, North-Central Pacific, North America, Mesoamerica, the Caribbean, western South America and southern South America (Clayton et al., 2016; POWO, 2020). It is cultivated in the Czech Republic, Hungary, the Netherlands, Canada, the United States, Australia, Thailand, Mexico and Argentina (USDA-ARS, 2020).
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Phalaris canariensis was recorded in the wild in Britain as early as 1632 (Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, 2020) and as expanding into many other countries: for example, it was recorded in Belgium as early as 1847 (Verloove, 2006) where it has remained casual (Alien plants of Belgium, 2020). In Argentina, it was cultivated at the beginning of the 20th century (Cogliatti, 2012).
Risk of Introduction
Phalaris canariensis is cultivated for the production of grains, mainly as feed for caged birds in the temperate zones of the world (Cogliatti, 2012); it is also a promising annual forage crop (Pelikán, 2000). Its introduction to other countries with temperate climates is, therefore, likely.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal
Phalaris canariensis can be dispersed by water (DiTomaso and Healy, 2003). This species has a limited natural dispersal range, with the success of its spread linked to human introductions (Voshell and Hilu, 2014).
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Seeds of P. canariensis are dispersed by birds and possibly in wool shoddy (Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, 2020).
Accidental Introduction
Accidental introduction is possible as some Phalaris spp. are contaminants of cereal crops, mainly wheat (Triticum aestivum) (Sangster et al., 1983).
Intentional Introduction
Phalaris canariensis is widely grown commercially in various parts of the world almost exclusively for its seed, which is used as bird feed (Hedrick, 1972; Baldini, 1993). It is the only species of its genus grown for grain production (Cogliatti et al., 2011). It is also used as an ornamental grass (Grounds, 1989; Cogliatti, 2012).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Yes | |||
| Internet sales (pathway cause) | Yes | |||
| Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Yes |
Hosts/Species Affected
Phalaris canariensis is listed as a weed in Tennessee (USA) and included in the US NRCS Invasive Species Policy Invasive Species Executive Order 13112 (USDA-NRCS, 2020). It is found as a weed in wheat (Triticum aestivum) and flax (Linum) crops in Argentina (Cogliatti, 2014), wheat in India (Gupta et al., 1981) and Pakistan (Siyar et al., 2018), wheat and barley (Hordeum vulgare) fields in Spain (Garcia-Baudin, 1983), winter wheat in Italy (Lasagna and Spagni, 1978) and in anise (Pimpinella anisum) crops in Turkey (Tepe et al., 1994). There is no information about its impact on crops, but this species is especially noticeable in the stage during seedling to maturity, when it is normally outcompeted by other weed species (Putnam et al., 1996).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
| Host | Host status | References |
|---|---|---|
| Hordeum vulgare (barley) | Unknown |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Some records possibly represent superficially similar species like P. brachystachys and to a lesser extent, P. minor. P. canariensis can be distinguished from P. minor because P. canariensis has two equal sterile lemmas and its anthers are about 3 mm long, unlike P. minor (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2020). P. canariensis is similar to P. brachystachys but has sterile florets more than half as long as the fertile ones and the inflorescence is shorter and fatter, usually ovoid.
Habitat
An annual casual plant, P. canariensis is found in disturbed areas: waste ground, rubbish tips, walls, roadsides and pavement cracks, especially in built-up areas (Weintraub, 1953; Clapham et al., 1987; Baldini, 1993; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2020; Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, 2020), and railway tracks (Alien plants of Belgium, 2020). This species is said to prefer dry ground and meadows, cultivated areas and roadsides (Tennessee Invasive Plant Council, 2022).
Habitat List
| Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial|Terrestrial – Managed|Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial|Terrestrial – Managed|Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial|Terrestrial – Managed|Disturbed areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial|Terrestrial – Managed|Rail / roadsides | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial|Terrestrial – Managed|Urban / peri-urban areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial|Terrestrial – Managed|Buildings | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial|Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural|Arid regions | Principal habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
A chromosome number of 2n = 12 has been reported for P. canariensis (Moore, 1982).
Reproductive Biology
Reproduction in P. canariensis is via seed; it is predominantly self-fertilizing, with an upper limit for open pollination of 2.2% (Matus-Cádiz and Hucl, 2006). It is pollinated by wind (PFAF, 2020).
Physiology and Phenology
In China, flowering and fructification occur in October (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2020). Flowering is from July to September in Britain (PFAF, 2020) and from July to August in the USA (Tennessee Invasive Plant Council, 2022). The flowering period is April-June and can extend to August in South America (Baldini, 1993). P. canariensis as a crop is an annual grass, with winter-spring growth, requiring 107 days from seed sowing to maturity (Putnam et al., 1992).
Environmental Requirements
Phalaris canariensis is found from sea level up to 1150 m (Meikle, 1985) and below 3000 m in China (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2020). However, it generally occurs on lowlands: for example, in Britain it is found up to 430 m (Botanical Society of Britain & Ireland, 2020). This species grows in ordinary garden soil, but grows best on heavier, clay-loam soils of medium-high fertility and does not perform well in poor, sandy soils. P. canariensis prefers moist or wet soil for maximum yields (Putnam et al., 1992) and is adaptable to a wide range of pH (PFAF, 2020); it is unable to grow in the shade. Its crop cycle and management are similar to those of wheat (Triticum aestivum) (Cogliatti et al., 2011). For further information on its agronomic requirements, see Cogliatti (2012) and Cogliatti (2014).
Climate
| Climate type | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate - < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated | |
| BS - Steppe climate - > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | Preferred | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer - Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Tolerated | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter - Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Tolerated | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year - Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Preferred | |
| Ds - Continental climate with dry summer - Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 70 | 50 |
Rainfall Regime
Winter
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > heavy
Soil drainage > seasonally waterlogged
Notes on Natural Enemies
Leaf mottle caused by Septoria triseti, fusarium head blight (Gibberella zeae) and ergot (Claviceps purpurea) were reported in P. canariensis fields in Saskatchewan, Canada (Berkenkamp et al., 1989; Cholango-Martinez et al., 2016; Cholango-Martinez et al., 2019). A new leaf disease in P. canariensis in Argentina attributed to Rhynchosporium secalis was reported in 2002 (Delhey et al., 2004; Monterroso et al., 2004). An account of fungal diseases affecting P. canariensis in Argentina is given by Pedraza and Pérez (2010).
According to Cogliatti (2012), insects are not a major problem with P. canariensis grown as a crop as they are generally not abundant enough to cause significant loss in yields. The English grain aphid, Macrosiphum avenae, and the bird cherry-oat aphid, Rhophalosiphum padi, are listed as the main insect pests of P. canariensis in Canada (Government of Saskatchewan, 2022). In Argentina, pests associated with this crop include the aphids, Metopolophium dirhodum and Schizaphis graminum, and the noctuids, Faronta albilinea, Pseudaletia adultera [Mythimna unipuncta] and Spodoptera frugiperda (Cordo et al., 2004). An account of the aphid species reported on P. canariensis worldwide is available from Blackman and Eastop (2006).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm) | Herbivore | not specific | ||||
| Schizaphis graminum (spring green aphid) | Herbivore | not specific | ||||
| Metopolophium dirhodum (rose-grass aphid) | Herbivore | not specific | ||||
| Gibberella zeae (headblight of maize) | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
| Claviceps purpurea (ergot) | Pathogen | not specific | ||||
| Rhynchosporium secalis (leaf blotch) | Pathogen | not specific |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Cultural/amenity | Positive |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive |
Impact: Environmental
Phalaris canariensis has been recorded as invasive within protected areas (national parks) in the USA (North Carolina, Tennessee and California) (Swearingen and Bargeron, 2016), but without further details. There is currently no evidence of impact on habitat or biodiversity for this species.
Impact: Social
The silicified macro-hairs of the inflorescence bracts of P. anariensis have been linked to oesophageal cancer (in regions of Iran) when present as a contaminant in wheat flour used for baking bread (O'Neill et al., 1980; Sangster et al., 1983).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Phalaris canariensis grains are almost exclusively used as feed for song or ornamental caged birds (Robinson, 1978). This species is also appreciated for its ornamental value (Grounds, 1989) and its panicles can be integrated into floral, natural or tinted arrangements (Cogliatti, 2012). The leaves can be woven into hats and matting (Moerman, 1998).
According to Johnson (1862), in Italy the seeds of P. canariensis used to be ground into meal and made into cakes and puddings; used for a similar purpose in the Canary islands, these were also made into groats for porridge. Finely ground seed flour was also used in dressing silks, fine calico and muslin. In the past, P. canariensis was not considered a viable cereal for human consumption due to the harmful effects associated with the siliceous hairs that cover the hull of the seed. These hairs cause irritation when they come into contact with human skin or lungs and have been linked to oesophageal cancer (in parts of Iran) (O'Neill et al., 1980; Sangster et al., 1983). In the early 1990s, the University of Saskatchewan’s Crop Development Center developed a new ‘hairless’ or glabrous P. canariensis, which was not only safe for individuals handling the seeds, but was also safe to consume and utilize by the food industry as a new cereal grain. The US Food and Drug Administration (2015) and Health Canada (2016) have granted GRAS (Generally Regarded as Safe) status to glabrous P. canariensis seeds and approved them as a novel food product.
Although Pelikán (2000) reported that P. canariensis is a promising annual forage crop, it has limited use due to the low biomass production compared to other species (Fischer and Dall'Agnol, 1985).
Phalaris canariensis is used in traditional medicine in Spain, the Canary Islands and Mexico to treat hypercholesterolaemia (Belda et al., 2012), kidney stones (Darias et al., 2001), diabetes and hypertension (Cogliatti, 2012).
A promising species in research, P. canariensis is used in allelopathy and biological control studies (Truol et al., 2001), in the detection of viruses that affect maize (Zea mays) (Enamorado et al., 2004) and in the study of the presence of functional bioactive substances in plants (Paredes et al., 2009).
Uses List
Ornamental
Ornamental > Christmas tree
Ornamental > Cut flower
Ornamental > garden plant
Ornamental > Potted plant
Ornamental > Propagation material
Ornamental > Seed trade
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Cereal
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Fodder/animal feed
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Forage
Environmental > Amenity
Materials > Baskets
Human food and beverage > Beverage base
Human food and beverage > Seeds
Human food and beverage > Flour/starch
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
General > Research model
Environmental > Host of pest
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/Mechanical Control
Seedlings and small sprouts of P. canariensis can be hand-picked or dug out carefully, keeping soil disturbance to a minimum. Cuttings must be properly disposed of in order to prevent these sprouting into new plants (Tennessee Invasive Plant Council, 2022).
Chemical Control
Established plants can be removed through foliar treatment of a general-use herbicide such as glyphosate (Tennessee Invasive Plant Council, 2022).
IPM
Infested areas can be fenced and browsed by goats for 3 to 4 years to achieve acceptable control as part of an integrated pest management programme (Tennessee Invasive Plant Council, 2022).
Distribution Map
References
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