Albizia procera (white siris)
Datasheet Types: Invasive species, Tree, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Albizia procera covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Management, Genetics and Breeding, Economics, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth.
- Preferred Common Name
- white siris
- Other Scientific Names
- Acacia elata Voigt
- Acacia procera (Roxb.) Willd.
- Albizzia procera nom. illeg.
- Feuilleea procera (Roxb.) Kuntze
- Lignum murinum-majus Rumph
- Mimosa coriaria Blanco
- Mimosa elata Roxb.
- Mimosa procera Roxb.
- International Common Names
- Englishred sirissafed siristall albiziawomen-tongue
- Spanishacacia blancaalbiciaalbicia blancaalbiziaalgarrobo de la India
- Chinesehuang dou shu
- Local Common Names
- Australiaforest sirisrain siristee-coma
- Bangladeshsilkorai
- Cubaalbiziaalgarrobo de la India
- Dominican Republiccarbonero
- Indonesiaki hiyangwangkulweru
- Malaysiaoriang
- Myanmarkokko-sitsit
- Nepalseto siris
- Papua New Guineabrown albizia
- Philippinesakleng parang
- South Africafalse lebbeckforests siris
- Thailandsuanthingthon
- EPPO code
- ALBPR (Albizia procera)
- Trade name
- forest siris
- Trade name
- safed siris
Pictures
Overview
Importance
A. procera is a moderately fast-growing, semi-deciduous tree adapted to the humid and sub-humid tropics. It is nitrogen-fixing and will grow in areas with a long dry season and on degraded soils such as seasonally waterlogged and shallow soils (Valkenburg, 1997). It is often used in amenity planting, in shelter belts and firebreaks and in the rehabilitation of eroded and degraded soils, especially in India. The species is planted for fuelwood and makes a high quality charcoal. The wood is also used for house construction, furniture, farm implements, fencing, and pulp and paper. It is a useful fodder species and appears to be an ideal candidate for a combined regime of wood production and grazing (Lowry et al., 1994).
Summary of Invasiveness
Albizia procera is a fast-growing, semi-deciduous, nitrogen-fixing tree that has been widely introduced in tropical and subtropical regions of the world to be used as an ornamental, soil improver and fuelwood species. It has the potential to spread by seeds and by root suckers and also coppices readily after damage. This tree has become an invasive weed in disturbed and natural environments because of its aggressive growth, high drought tolerance and wide adaptation to different environmental and soil conditions. In South Africa, A. procera invades subtropical coastal bush and riverbanks and is a Category 1 plant on the Regulation 15 Declared Weeds and Invader Plants list, meaning the plant may not occur on any land other than in biological control reserves and land-owners are obliged to control it. In Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, it is an aggressive colonizer of abandoned farmlands, pastures, roadsides and other highly disturbed sites.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The genus Albizia is a member of the legume family (Fabaceae), subfamily Mimosoideae. This subfamily comprises 82 genera and about 3335 species of shrubs and trees (rarely herbs) in which nitrogen-fixing is common (Stevens, 2016). The genus Albizia comprises approximately 150 species of mostly trees and shrubs native to tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa (Parrotta, 2004).
Albizia is similar to Acacia, from which it differs by the stamens being fused as opposed to free in Acacia. The genus was named after Filippo del Albizzi, a Florentine nobleman who in 1749 introduced A. julibrissin into cultivation. A. procera (Roxb.) Benth. species epithet is derived from the Latin procerus - very tall or high, alluding to the height the species can attain.
Related species are A. canescens and A. lebbeck. A. procera is clearly distinguished from A. lebbeck by the smooth pale green or buff bark, larger leaves, more diffuse canopy, much smaller flowers and smaller, flatter red pods (Lowry and Seebeck, 1997).
Plant Type
Perennial
Broadleaved
Seed propagated
Tree
Vegetatively propagated
Woody
Description
Albizia procera is typically a small tree 7-15 m tall, but it can reach 30 m with a 9 m long straight or crooked bole 35-60 cm in diameter. The bark is smooth, pale grey-green, yellowish-green or brown with horizontal grooves, sometimes flaky in thin, small scales. The underside of the bark is green, changing to orange just below the surface; inner bark pinkish or straw-coloured. It is described and illustrated in many texts, including Brandis (1972), Verdcourt (1979), Nielsen (1985), ICFRE (1995), Doran and Turnbull (1997) and Valkenburg (1997). The compound leaves have 2-5 (-8) pairs of sub-opposite pinnae, with a petiole 5.5-12 cm long with a large, brown, oblong gland near the base; gland narrowly elliptical, 4-10 mm long, flat and disc-like or concave with raised margins. The pinnae are 12-20 cm long, with elliptical glands below the junction of the 1-3 distal pairs of petiolules, 1 mm in diameter. Leaflets are in 5-12 pairs on each pinna, opposite, asymmetrically ovate to sub-rhomboid, 2-4.5 (-6) cm x 1-2.2 (-3.3) cm, base asymmetrical, often emarginate, apex rounded or sub-truncate, both surfaces sparsely puberulous or finely pubescent, rarely glabrous above (Valkenburg, 1997). The inflorescence is a large terminal panicle, to 30 cm long, with sessile, white or greenish-white, sessile flowers in small 15-30 flowered heads, 13 mm in diameter on stalks 8-30 mm long; the corolla funnel-shaped, 6-6.5 mm long, with elliptical lobes. The fruit is a flat, papery pod, dark red-brown, linear-oblong, 10-25 cm long by 2-3 cm broad with distinctive long points at both ends and distinctive marks over each seed. It contains 6-12 brown, ellipsoid seeds, 7.5-8 mm x 4.5-6.5 mm and 1.5 mm thick that are arranged more or less transversely in the pod (Valkenburg, 1997). At maturity the pod splits open to release the seeds which are smooth, greenish brown with a leathery testa.
Botanical Features
General
A. procera is typically a small tree 7-15 m tall, but it can reach 30 m with a 9-m long straight or crooked bole 35-60 cm diameter. The bark is smooth, pale grey-green, yellowish-green or brown with horizontal grooves, sometimes flaky in thin, small scales. The underbark is green, changing to orange just below the surface; inner bark pinkish or straw-coloured. It is described and illustrated in many texts, including Brandis (1972), Verdcourt (1979), Nielsen (1985), ICFRE (1995), Doran and Turnbull (1997) and Valkenburg (1997).
Foliage
The compound leaves have 2-5(-8) pairs of sub-opposite pinnae with a petiole 5.5-12 cm long with a large, brown, oblong gland near the base; gland narrowly elliptical, 4-10 mm long, flat and disc-like or concave with raised margins. The pinnae are 12-20 cm long, with elliptical glands below the junction of the 1-3 distal pairs of petiolules, 1 mm in diameter. Leaflets are in 5-12 pairs on each pinna, opposite, asymmetrically ovate to sub-rhomboid, 2-4.5(-6) cm x 1-2.2(-3.3) cm, base asymmetrical, often emarginate, apex rounded or sub-truncate, both surfaces sparsely puberulous or finely pubescent, rarely glabrous above (Valkenburg, 1997).
Inflorescences, flowers and fruits
The inflorescence is a large terminal panicle, to 30 cm long, with sessile, white or greenish-white, sessile flowers in small 15-30 flowered heads, 13 mm in diameter on stalks 8-30 mm long; the corolla funnel-shaped, 6-6.5 mm long, with elliptical lobes. The fruit is a pod, flat, papery, dark red-brown, linear-oblong, 10-25 cm long by 2-3 cm broad with distinctive long points at both ends and distinctive marks over each seed. It contains 6-12 brown, ellipsoid seeds, 7.5-8 mm x 4.5-6.5 mm and 1.5 mm thick that are arranged more or less transversely in the pod (Valkenburg, 1997). At maturity the pod splits open to release the seeds which are smooth, greenish brown with a leathery testa.
Phenology
A. procera becomes almost leafless for a short time during the dry season (Valkenburg, 1997). In Australia, leaf fall in this species occurs late in the dry season (late November-early December) (Lowry and Seebeck, 1997), while in India leaf fall takes place in January-February and new leaves appear in April-May (ICFRE, 1995).In Australia, flowering occurs about March to May and the fruits mature from July to October. In India flowering begins in June after the monsoon has started; the pods are formed soon after flowering and mature in 8 months (January-March in northern states; February-May elsewhere); elsewhere it is reported to flower and fruit throughout the year (ICFRE, 1995; Valkenburg, 1997).
Distribution
Albizia procera occurs naturally in India (Gupta, 1993; ICFRE, 1995) through South-East Asia to the Philippines, Indonesia, Melanesia and northern Australia. It extends north into China, including Hainan and Taiwan (van Valkenburg, 1997). Isolated populations occur in the Malay Peninsula, southern Kalimantan and Sumatra (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea (Nielsen, 1985; van Valkenburg, 1997). In Australia, A. procera is most common in coastal areas of northeastern Queensland. There are also disjunct occurrences in the Kimberley region in northern Western Australia (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). It has been introduced into Africa, the Caribbean, Panama, Brazil and Fiji (Orwa et al., 2009; ILDIS, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).
Review of Natural Distribution
A. procera occurs naturally in a wide distribution from India (Gupta, 1993; ICFRE, 1995) and Burma through South-East Asia to Papua New Guinea and northern Australia. It extends north into China, including Hainan and Taiwan (Valkenburg, 1997). Isolated populations occur in the Malay Peninsula, southern Philippines, southern Kalimantan and Sumatra (Indonesia) and New Britain (Papua New Guinea) (Nielsen, 1985; Valkenburg, 1997). In Australia, A. procera is most common in coastal areas of north-eastern Queensland. There are also disjunct occurrences in the Kimberley region in northern Western Australia (Doran and Turnbull, 1997).Vegetation TypesIn India, A. procera occurs in tropical semi-evergreen forests, tropical moist deciduous forests, dry tropical forests such as low alluvial savanna woodlands and northern subtropical broadleaved forests (Gupta, 1993; ICFRE, 1995). In Vietnam it is found in tropical rain forest, dry open forest and savannas (Nguyen Ngoc Chinh et al., 1996). Other vegetation types reported by Valkenburg (1997) include secondary forest, monsoon forest, pyrogenic grassland and stunted, seasonal swamp forest.In Australia, A. procera is found mainly in woodland, open-woodland and open-forest dominated by eucalypts. It occurs commonly in the understorey of woodland 10-20 m high dominated by Eucalyptus intermedia, E. pellita, E. tereticornis, E. tessellaris, E. torelliana, Acacia aulacocarpa, A. mangium and Lophostemon suaveolens. The woodlands are burnt regularly and the ground layer is dominated by the grasses Imperata cylindrica and Themeda australis (Tracey, 1982). It is co-dominant in low open-forest with E. miniata and E. polycarpa in northern Western Australia. In Queensland, it also occurs in monsoon forest and gallery forest and at the rain forest margins (Hyland and Whiffin, 1993; Lowry and Seebeck, 1997).
Location of Introductions
A. procera has been introduced into a number of Caribbean and Central American countries such as Cuba, Puerto Rico and Panama, where it has become a weed (Chinea-Rivera, 1995; Valkenburg, 1997). It has also been introduced in various African countries including Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe and in countries in the South Pacific such as Fiji and Solomon Islands (Streets, 1962).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Albizia procera has been introduced into a number of Caribbean and Central American countries such as Cuba, Puerto Rico and Panama, where it has become an invasive weed (Chinea-Rivera, 1995; Valkenburg, 1997). World Agroforestry Centre (2002) reports its introduction to the US Virgin Islands in the late 1800s and to Puerto Rico in 1924. In Puerto Rico during the 1940s, the introduction and plantation of this species increased because it was seen as “a promising rapid-growing fuelwood species” for the coastal and lower mountain regions (Little and Wadsworth, 1964). It has also been introduced into various African countries including Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda and Zimbabwe and in countries in the South Pacific such as Fiji and Solomon Islands. In South Africa, it was introduced in 1929 and now invading areas across the KwaZulu-Natal region (Nyoka, 2002). In Australia, in the absence of burning, it will colonize alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica) natural grassland (van Valkenburg, 1997).
Risk of Introduction
The risk of introduction of A. procera is very high across tropical and subtropical regions of the world. This species is widely promoted to be used as a soil improver in agroforestry systems, for wood and charcoal production and as an ornamental (Orwa et al., 2009). Additionally, this species has the potential to escape from cultivation and become naturalized, especially in disturbed areas near cultivation.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Albizia procera spreads by seeds and vegetatively by root suckers (Parrotta, 2004). Seeds may be released from mature dehiscent pods still attached to the tree or from wind-blown pods that later dehisce or decompose (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002). Seeds are also dispersed by animals as pods are often eaten by cattle and other animals.
Intentional introduction
Albizia procera has been actively introduced by humans into agroforestry and silvopasture systems (Valkenburg, 1997; Nyoka, 2002; Parrotta, 2004). It is widely cultivated for use as a soil improver and protein source in agroforestry systems and as an ornamental and shade tree in plantations (Orwa et al., 2009). Intentional introduction is, therefore, the primary routes of spread.
Pathway Causes
Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Animal production (pathway cause) | The protein-rich fodder of A. procera is eaten by cattle, buffaloes, goats, camels and elephants | Yes | Yes | |
Disturbance (pathway cause) | Common along roadsides and disturbed sites | Yes | ||
Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Found naturalized in areas near cultivation | Yes | ||
Forage (pathway cause) | Leaves are used as forage and fodder | Yes | Yes | |
Forestry (pathway cause) | Widely promoted as a key species in agroforestry systems | Yes | Yes | |
Habitat restoration and improvement (pathway cause) | Often planted as soil improver | Yes | Yes | |
Hedges and windbreaks (pathway cause) | Planted as windbreak and shade tree in plantations | Yes | Yes | |
Medicinal use (pathway cause) | Used in traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | |
Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Planted as ornamental in parks and gardens and as shade tree | Yes | Yes | |
Timber trade (pathway cause) | The wood is used for agricultural implements, moulding, furniture, veneer and cabinet work | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Widely cultivated in agroforestry systems | Yes | ||
Livestock (pathway vector) | Seeds are eaten by livestock | Yes | Yes | |
Wind (pathway vector) | Seeds are dispersed by wind | Yes | Yes |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Related species are A. canescens and A. lebbeck. A. procera is clearly distinguished from A. lebbeck by the smooth pale green or buff bark, larger leaves, more diffuse canopy, much smaller flowers and smaller, flatter red pods (Lowry and Seebeck, 1997).
Habitat
In India, A. procera occurs in tropical semi-evergreen forests, tropical moist deciduous forests, dry tropical forests such as low alluvial savannah woodlands and northern subtropical broadleaved forests (Gupta, 1993; ICFRE, 1995). In Vietnam, it is found in tropical rainforest, dry open-forest and savannahs (Nguyen Ngoc Chinh et al., 1996). Other vegetation types reported by Valkenburg (1997) include secondary forest, monsoon forest, pyrogenic grassland and stunted, seasonal swamp forest.
In Australia, A. procera is found mainly in woodland, open-woodland and open-forest dominated by eucalypts. In Queensland, it also occurs in monsoon forest and gallery forest and at the rain forest margins (Hyland et al., 1993; Lowry and Seebeck, 1997).
In Australia, A. procera is found mainly in woodland, open-woodland and open-forest dominated by eucalypts. In Queensland, it also occurs in monsoon forest and gallery forest and at the rain forest margins (Hyland et al., 1993; Lowry and Seebeck, 1997).
In China, A. procera occurs in thin forests and thickets at elevation ranging from 100 m to 600 m (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). In the Caribbean, it grows in ruderal sites in dry and moist forests (Oviedo Prieto et al., 2012; Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodríguez, 2015; Trinidad Biodiversity, 2016).
Habitat List
Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for A. procera is 2n=26 (van Valkenburg, 1997). This species has a broad geographic range and it is reasonable to expect large provenance variation in such attributes as growth, form and adaptation to different environments. This is confirmed to some degree by species trials in southeastern Queensland which included a very limited range of Australian provenances of A. procera and growth rate and survival of 2 years after planting varied substantially among provenances (Ryan and Bell, 1991). Studies testing a comprehensive range of provenances of A. procera in different environments are warranted given the economic potential of the species. Institutes in Australia, India, Singapore and Thailand are listed as suppliers of seed from native populations of this species (Kindt et al., 1997). No breeding programmes of A. procera are known to exist.
Physiology and Phenology
Albizia procera becomes almost leafless for a short time during the dry season (Valkenburg, 1997). In Australia, leaf fall in this species occurs late in the dry season (late November-early December) (Lowry and Seebeck, 1997), while in India leaf fall takes place in January-February and new leaves appear in April-May (ICFRE, 1995). In Australia, flowering occurs about March to May and the fruits mature from July to October. In India, flowering begins in June after the monsoon has started; the pods are formed soon after flowering and mature in 8 months (January-March in northern states; February-May elsewhere); elsewhere it is reported to flower and fruit throughout the year (ICFRE, 1995; Valkenburg, 1997). In China, it has been recorded flowering from May to September and fruiting from September to February of following year (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). In Puerto Rico, flowering generally occurs during the rainy season, from August to October and flowering activity begins at 3 to 4 years of age, when trees reach a height of approximately 4 m (Parrotta, 2004).
The chromosome number reported for A. procera is 2n=26 (van Valkenburg, 1997). This species has a broad geographic range and it is reasonable to expect large provenance variation in such attributes as growth, form and adaptation to different environments. This is confirmed to some degree by species trials in southeastern Queensland which included a very limited range of Australian provenances of A. procera and growth rate and survival of 2 years after planting varied substantially among provenances (Ryan and Bell, 1991). Studies testing a comprehensive range of provenances of A. procera in different environments are warranted given the economic potential of the species. Institutes in Australia, India, Singapore and Thailand are listed as suppliers of seed from native populations of this species (Kindt et al., 1997). No breeding programmes of A. procera are known to exist.
Physiology and Phenology
Albizia procera becomes almost leafless for a short time during the dry season (Valkenburg, 1997). In Australia, leaf fall in this species occurs late in the dry season (late November-early December) (Lowry and Seebeck, 1997), while in India leaf fall takes place in January-February and new leaves appear in April-May (ICFRE, 1995). In Australia, flowering occurs about March to May and the fruits mature from July to October. In India, flowering begins in June after the monsoon has started; the pods are formed soon after flowering and mature in 8 months (January-March in northern states; February-May elsewhere); elsewhere it is reported to flower and fruit throughout the year (ICFRE, 1995; Valkenburg, 1997). In China, it has been recorded flowering from May to September and fruiting from September to February of following year (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). In Puerto Rico, flowering generally occurs during the rainy season, from August to October and flowering activity begins at 3 to 4 years of age, when trees reach a height of approximately 4 m (Parrotta, 2004).
Germination is epigeal and occurs from 2 to 21 days after sowing providing soil moisture is sufficient. Vigorous seedlings produce a long, stout taproot and lateral roots soon form Rhizobium nodules (Parrotta, 1988). In nurseries, seedlings may reach 20 cm to 30 cm height within 2 to 3 months. A. procera has a mean annual increment in diameter of 1-4 cm and adult trees may reach 40-60 cm of diameter at breast height in 30 years (Valkenburg, 1997).
Reproductive Biology
Flowers are bisexual and apparently pollinated by wind and insects (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002). In Puerto Rico, A. procera trees growing in the open produced 3500 pods in one year and most pods and seeds fell within the extent of the crown (Chinea-Rivera, 1995). In Australia, A. procera has about 16,600 viable seeds/kg, with an average germination rate of 63% (Doran and Turnbull, 1997), but in Indonesia and Bangladesh there are 20,000-24,000 seeds/kg (Mohiuddin, 1997; Roshetko, 1997). Depending on the location, pods can take 8 months to ripen (e.g. India) or the tree can flower and fruit throughout the year (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002). Seeds may be released from mature dehiscent pods still attached to the tree or from wind-blown pods that later dehisce or decompose (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002). Vegetative propagation of A. procera may be successfully achieved by stumps and stem or root cuttings (National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Valkenburg, 1997).
Flowers are bisexual and apparently pollinated by wind and insects (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002). In Puerto Rico, A. procera trees growing in the open produced 3500 pods in one year and most pods and seeds fell within the extent of the crown (Chinea-Rivera, 1995). In Australia, A. procera has about 16,600 viable seeds/kg, with an average germination rate of 63% (Doran and Turnbull, 1997), but in Indonesia and Bangladesh there are 20,000-24,000 seeds/kg (Mohiuddin, 1997; Roshetko, 1997). Depending on the location, pods can take 8 months to ripen (e.g. India) or the tree can flower and fruit throughout the year (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002). Seeds may be released from mature dehiscent pods still attached to the tree or from wind-blown pods that later dehisce or decompose (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002). Vegetative propagation of A. procera may be successfully achieved by stumps and stem or root cuttings (National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Valkenburg, 1997).
Longevity
Albizia procera is a fast-growing, long-lived perennial tree (Parrotta, 2004). Trees may live for more than 30 years (Valkenburg, 1997).
Environmental Requirements
Valkenburg (1997) gives climatic indicators for this species: mean annual rainfall of 1700 mm with a range of 500-3000 mm; annual mean maximum temperature of 32°C and annual mean minimum of 21°C. Gupta (1993) describes the species as frost tender, with -1°C the lowest temperature recorded throughout its natural range. In Australia, A. procera lies in the hot humid and sub-humid zones and rarely close to the hot semi-arid zone (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). The mean maximum temperature of the hottest month is mainly 31-34°C and the mean minimum of the coolest 11-19°C. There are 60-100 days over 32°C and from 0-4 days over 38°C. The area is frost-free. The 50-percentile rainfall is mainly 1000-1750 mm but the extremes are from 650 to 2150 mm. The most northerly localities have a strong summer monsoon rainfall pattern. Elsewhere on the central east coast of Queensland, there is a strong summer maximum. There are 60-125 rain-days a year.
According to Valkenburg (1997), A. procera grows well on shallow soils with a pH of 5.5-7.5. In India, this species prefers well-drained sandy and sandy loam soils in moist places along streams and even in swampy situations and low-lying areas, but is also capable of growing in poor soils (Gupta, 1993). In Western Australia, A. procera occurs on sandstone plateaux overlying basalt. Eastern Australian occurrences are mainly in the foothills and coastal lowlands on shallow sandy or loamy soils of low to medium fertility derived from basalts, granite or shale. Other soil types include acid and neutral yellow earths, acid red friable earths and solodized solonetz and solodics. It also grows on poor, seasonally swampy, shallow soils.
Associations
Albizia procera fixes nitrogen after nodulating with certain native strains of rhizobia (Halliday, 1984; MacDicken, 1994). In Australia, it occurs commonly in the understorey of woodland 10-20 m highly dominated by Eucalyptus intermedia [Corymbia intermedia], E. pellita, E. tereticornis, E. tessellaris [C. tessellaris], E. torelliana [C. torelliana], Acacia aulacocarpa, A. mangium and Lophostemon suaveolens. The woodlands are burnt regularly and the ground layer is dominated by the grasses Imperata cylindrica and Themeda australis [Themeda triandra] (Tracey, 1982). It is co-dominant in low open-forest with E. miniata and E. polycarpa [C. polycarpa] in northern Western Australia.
Climate
Valkenburg (1997) gives climatic indicators for this species: mean annual rainfall of 1700 mm with a range of 500-3000 mm; annual mean maximum temperature of 32ºC and annual mean minimum of 21ºC. Gupta (1993) describes the species as frost tender, with -1ºC the lowest temperature recorded throughout its natural range.In Australia, A. procera lies in the hot humid and sub-humid zones, and rarely close to the hot semi-arid zone (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). The mean maximum temperature of the hottest month is mainly 31-34ºC and the mean minimum of the coolest 11-19ºC. There are 60-100 days over 32ºC and from 0-4 days over 38ºC. The area is frost-free. The 50 percentile rainfall is mainly 1000-1750 mm but the extremes are from 650 to 2150 mm. The most northerly localities have a strong summer monsoon rainfall pattern. Elsewhere on the central east coast of Queensland there is a strong summer maximum. There are 60-125 rain-days a year.
Soil and Physiography
According to Valkenburg (1997), A. procera grows well on shallow soils with a pH of 5.5-7.5. In India, this species prefers well-drained sandy to sandy loam soils in moist places along streams and even in swampy situations and low-lying areas, but is also capable of growing in poor soils (Gupta, 1993). In Western Australia, A. procera occurs on sandstone plateaux overlying basalt. Eastern Australian occurrences are mainly in the foothills and coastal lowlands on shallow sandy or loamy soils of low to medium fertility derived from basalts, granite or shales. Other soil types include acid and neutral yellow earths, acid red friable earths and solodized solonetz and solodics.
Vegetation Types
deciduous forests
dry forests
moist forests
rain forests
riparian forests
savanna woodlands
savannas
secondary forests
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
28 | -22 | 0 | 1500 |
Air Temperature
Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature | -1 | |
Mean annual temperature | 21 | 32 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month | 31 | 34 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month | 11 | 21 |
Rainfall
Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 4 | 5 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
Mean annual rainfall | 500 | 3000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Bimodal
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil reaction > alkaline
Soil drainage > seasonally waterlogged
Special soil tolerances > shallow
Special soil tolerances > saline
Special soil tolerances > sodic
Special soil tolerances > infertile
Soil Types
acid soils
sandy soils
solonetz
ultisols
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
In the nursery, seedling wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum causes death of A. procera seedlings in India (ICFRE, 1995). Colletotrichum dematium or leaf spot disease causes damage to older leaves of seedlings and tender shoots and promotes early defoliation and is most severe under conditions of high humidity (ICFRE, 1995). Ravenelia clemensiae causes pustules to form on leaflets of seedlings and can kill plants and it is controlled chemically (ICFRE, 1995). In plantations in India, bark and stem cankers are caused by the pit canker disease Fusarium solani [Haematonectria haematococca] in 15-20 year-old trees of A. procera (ICFRE, 1995). In India, a serious outbreak of the leaf spot fungus, Cercospora, was reported on A. procera leaves by Nath et al. (1989). Root rot caused by Ganoderma lucidum and heart rot caused by Ganoderma applanatum and Polyporus gilvus are reported to be minor diseases of A. procera in India.
Bruchids or seed weevils, including the species Bruchidius bilineatopygus, cause very considerable damage to seed of A. procera in India (Abraham et al., 1995; ICFRE, 1995). Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) were identified causing galling and poor growth of A. procera in forest nurseries around Dehra Dun, India (Sharma and Mehrotra, 1992). The hemipterous insect Oxyrhachis tarandus causes considerable damage (Troup, 1921). In Indonesia, the tops of young trees may be damaged by Rhynchites beetles (Kalshoven, 1934). Stem borer attacks are reported from Zimbabwe and in India and Malaysia, trees of A. procera have been sometimes defoliated by larvae of Lepidoptera species such as Ascotis selenaria, Eurema blanda, E. hecabe, Cusiala raptaria, Hyposidra successaria [Hyposidra talaca], Rhesala imparata, R. inconcinnalis, R. moestalis and Semiothisa emersaria (ICFRE, 1995; Valkenburg, 1997). The termite Coptotermes curvignathus is reported as a pest in India and in Africa the termite Ancistrotermes amphidon is a serious pest of young trees (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002).
Bruchids or seed weevils, including the species Bruchidius bilineatopygus, cause very considerable damage to seed of A. procera in India (Abraham et al., 1995; ICFRE, 1995). Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) were identified causing galling and poor growth of A. procera in forest nurseries around Dehra Dun, India (Sharma and Mehrotra, 1992). The hemipterous insect Oxyrhachis tarandus causes considerable damage (Troup, 1921). In Indonesia, the tops of young trees may be damaged by Rhynchites beetles (Kalshoven, 1934). Stem borer attacks are reported from Zimbabwe and in India and Malaysia, trees of A. procera have been sometimes defoliated by larvae of Lepidoptera species such as Ascotis selenaria, Eurema blanda, E. hecabe, Cusiala raptaria, Hyposidra successaria [Hyposidra talaca], Rhesala imparata, R. inconcinnalis, R. moestalis and Semiothisa emersaria (ICFRE, 1995; Valkenburg, 1997). The termite Coptotermes curvignathus is reported as a pest in India and in Africa the termite Ancistrotermes amphidon is a serious pest of young trees (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002).
Impact Summary
Category | Impact |
---|---|
Animal/plant collections | None |
Animal/plant products | None |
Biodiversity (generally) | Negative |
Crop production | None |
Environment (generally) | None |
Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
Forestry production | None |
Human health | None |
Livestock production | None |
Native fauna | None |
Native flora | Negative |
Rare/protected species | None |
Tourism | None |
Trade/international relations | None |
Transport/travel | None |
Impact: Environmental
Impact on habitats
Albizia procera grows forming dense stands that inhibit the germination and establishment of seedling of other species including native plants. Henderson (2001) classifies A. procera as a transformer species, i.e. as a monospecies it can dominate or replace the canopy or subcanopy layer of a natural or semi-natural ecosystem altering its structure, integrity or functioning.
Albizia procera is a N-fixing species with the potential to change soil nitrogen levels with negative impacts on nutrient balances and cycling in invaded areas (Chinea, 1992; Parrotta, 2004). Consequently, it is considered as a habitat transformer species (Oviedo et al., 2012).
Impact on biodiversity
Albizia procera grows forming dense thickets that outcompete native plant species, with a consequent reduction in native species diversity. Across the Caribbean Islands, A. procera grows faster than many native species (World Agroforestry Centre, 2002) displacing and outcompeting native plant species. It is also an invasive species impacting the flora of Caribbean dry forests, one of the most threatened ecosystems in the world (Murphy and Lugo, 1986). In Puerto Rico, A. procera covers more than 1000 hectares in moist plains and foothills, the rate of spread has been rapid and it is regarded as already common or abundant, widespread and competing in primary or secondary forest stands (Francis and Liogier, 1991).
Impact: Social
Henderson (2001) classifies all plant parts as poisonous, however, the tree is widely used as a fodder tree in agroforestry systems with the pods used in animal feed.
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Gregarious
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Reproduces asexually
Impact outcomes
Altered trophic level
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts animal health
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - smothering
Poisoning
Rapid growth
Rooting
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Albizia procera is a useful tree for farm and amenity planting, light shade, firebreaks and for the rehabilitation of seasonally dry, eroded and degraded soils (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). In Cuba, it is used as a shade tree over coffee (Cumba et al., 1992) and in Himachal Pradesh, India, it has been tested successfully as an agroforestry species in an alley cropping system with rain-fed wheat (Triticum aestivum) (Chauhan et al., 1995). In the Philippines, farmers conserve trees of A. procera in the landscape because they cast only a light shade, fix nitrogen and serve as a cash reserve as the trees are in demand by local carvers (Valkenburg, 1997). In Bangladesh, A. procera is regarded as a soil improver and is used as a nurse tree in tea gardens, coffee and cocoa (Theobroma cacao) plantings (Mohiuddin, 1997).
Albizia procera has a large amount of non-durable, yellowish-white sapwood. The heartwood is hard and heavy, light or dark brown, with light and dark bands resembling walnut. It is straight-grained, splits readily, seasons well, works easily and is durable (Brandis, 1972). The timber is strong, elastic, tough and hard (ICFRE, 1995). A. procera makes a good cabinet and furniture timber and is also suitable for general construction, agricultural implements, household products, poles, house posts, truck and bus bodies and packing cases. It is a suitable source material for paper pulp, giving satisfactory yields of bleached pulp (ICFRE, 1995). The fibres of A. procera are short and blending with a long-fibred pulp may be necessary to improve strength properties for some end uses (ICFRE, 1995). A. procera makes excellent charcoal and fuelwood (Campbell, 1980; ICFRE, 1995). The high rate of biomass production (124 t/ha oven-dry at 5.5 years), high proportion of biomass in stem and branches (91%) and observed vigorous coppicing after felling led Lugo et al. (1990) to recommend the species for fuelwood production in Puerto Rico.
In India, the leaves of A. procera are considered good fodder for most ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, elephants and deer) and the tree is lopped for fodder in several states (ICFRE, 1995). In Australia, it appears that early settlers regarded A. procera as a good fodder tree (Lowry and Seebeck, 1997). According to Lowry and Seebeck (1997), the main natural feed source from A. procera when established at wide spacings in a silvopastoral system would be the fallen leaves during the period of low quality dry-season pasture. These leaves could be expected to have similar feed value to the leaves of Albizia lebbeck, but would be available much later in the dry season. According to Valkenburg (1997), mineral content of the leaves for N, K, Ca and Mg is adequate for animal production, but the Na and P contents are inadequate, suggesting that this species should not be used alone for fodder but in mixtures with other fodder species. The leaf has a high crude fibre and lignin content, indicating poor digestibility (Valkenburg, 1997). In a study in West Africa, Larbi et al. (1996) found that A. procera was inferior in feed value to A. lebbeck and A. saman [Samanea saman].
The bark is a source of tannin, but yields are low (Japing, 1936; Valkenburg, 1997). The pounded bark is used as a fish poison and the leaves are used as an insecticide in Nepal (Valkenburg, 1997).
Albizia procera has a large amount of non-durable, yellowish-white sapwood. The heartwood is hard and heavy, light or dark brown, with light and dark bands resembling walnut. It is straight-grained, splits readily, seasons well, works easily and is durable (Brandis, 1972). The timber is strong, elastic, tough and hard (ICFRE, 1995). A. procera makes a good cabinet and furniture timber and is also suitable for general construction, agricultural implements, household products, poles, house posts, truck and bus bodies and packing cases. It is a suitable source material for paper pulp, giving satisfactory yields of bleached pulp (ICFRE, 1995). The fibres of A. procera are short and blending with a long-fibred pulp may be necessary to improve strength properties for some end uses (ICFRE, 1995). A. procera makes excellent charcoal and fuelwood (Campbell, 1980; ICFRE, 1995). The high rate of biomass production (124 t/ha oven-dry at 5.5 years), high proportion of biomass in stem and branches (91%) and observed vigorous coppicing after felling led Lugo et al. (1990) to recommend the species for fuelwood production in Puerto Rico.
In India, the leaves of A. procera are considered good fodder for most ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, elephants and deer) and the tree is lopped for fodder in several states (ICFRE, 1995). In Australia, it appears that early settlers regarded A. procera as a good fodder tree (Lowry and Seebeck, 1997). According to Lowry and Seebeck (1997), the main natural feed source from A. procera when established at wide spacings in a silvopastoral system would be the fallen leaves during the period of low quality dry-season pasture. These leaves could be expected to have similar feed value to the leaves of Albizia lebbeck, but would be available much later in the dry season. According to Valkenburg (1997), mineral content of the leaves for N, K, Ca and Mg is adequate for animal production, but the Na and P contents are inadequate, suggesting that this species should not be used alone for fodder but in mixtures with other fodder species. The leaf has a high crude fibre and lignin content, indicating poor digestibility (Valkenburg, 1997). In a study in West Africa, Larbi et al. (1996) found that A. procera was inferior in feed value to A. lebbeck and A. saman [Samanea saman].
The bark is a source of tannin, but yields are low (Japing, 1936; Valkenburg, 1997). The pounded bark is used as a fish poison and the leaves are used as an insecticide in Nepal (Valkenburg, 1997).
Uses: Wood Uses
A. procera has a large amount of non-durable, yellowish-white sapwood. The heartwood is hard and heavy, light or dark brown, with light and dark bands resembling walnut. It is straight-grained, splits readily, seasons well, works easily and is durable (Brandis, 1972). The timber is strong, elastic, tough and hard (ICFRE, 1995). Air-dry density is 640-880 kg/cubic metre, with timber from Dehra Dun, India giving a specific gravity of 0.579 kg/cubic metre (ICFRE, 1995). A. procera makes a good cabinet and furniture timber, and is also suitable for general construction, agricultural implements, household products, poles, house posts, truck and bus bodies, and packing cases.The wood is resistant to several species of termites, including Bifiditermes beesoni, Cryptotermes cynocephalus and Coptotermes curvignathus, though the latter is regarded as a pest in India (Valkenburg, 1997).It is a suitable source material for paper pulp, giving satisfactory yields of bleached pulp (50.3%) (ICFRE, 1995). The fibres of A. procera are short (0.7-1.65 mm) and blending with a long-fibred pulp may be necessary to improve strength properties for some end uses (ICFRE, 1995).A. procera makes excellent charcoal and fuelwood (Campbell, 1980; ICFRE, 1995). The calorific value of dried sapwood is 4870 Kcal/kg and that of heartwood 4865 Kcal/kg (ICFRE, 1995). The high rate of biomass production (124 t/ha oven-dry at 5.5 years), high proportion of biomass in stem and branches (91%) and observed vigorous coppicing after felling led Lugo et al. (1990) to recommend the species for fuelwood production in Puerto Rico.
Uses: Non-Wood Uses
In India, the leaves of A. procera are considered good fodder for most ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, elephants and deer) and the tree is lopped for fodder in several states (ICFRE, 1995). Leaves contain 18.9% protein, 3.3% fat, 39.7% carbohydrates, 1.51% calcium, 0.3% phosphorus, 31.9% fibre and 6.2% ash (ICFRE, 1995). A study on a 6-7-year-old plantation of A. procera in India showed that green fodder production was 28.7 kg/tree (range 24.6-34.4 kg/tree) and 8.04 t/ha (range 6.9-9.9 t/ha) (Gupta, 1993). In Australia, it appears that early settlers regarded A. procera as a good fodder tree (Lowry and Seebeck, 1997). According to Lowry and Seebeck (1997), the main natural feed source from A. procera when established at wide spacings in a silvopastoral system would be the fallen leaves during the period of low quality dry-season pasture. These leaves could be expected to have similar feed value to the leaves of A. lebbeck, but would be available much latter in the dry season. Valkenburg (1997) gave the results of mineral composition of two-year-old trees grown on an acid soil in southern Sumatra (per 100 g of dry material): N 1.76 g, P 0.08 g, K 1.07 g, Ca 0.66 g, Mg 0.28 g, Na 0.01 g, S 0.17 g. Digestibility analysis of this material gave: neutral detergent fibre 64%, acid detergent fibre 65%, ash 4%, lignin 42% and lipids 5.5%. Higher values for N, P and K were recorded in trees grown in Puerto Rico under more favourable conditions.According to Valkenburg (1997), mineral content of the leaves for N, K, Ca and Mg is adequate for animal production, but the Na and P contents are inadequate, suggesting that this species should not be used alone for fodder but in mixtures with other fodder species. The leaf has a high crude fibre and lignin content, indicating poor digestibility (Valkenburg, 1997). This was confirmed by Vercoe (1989) who found the predicted in vivo dry matter digestibility of A. procera foliage to be low (19.4%). In a study in West Africa, Larbi et al. (1996) found that A. procera was inferior in feed value to A. lebbeck and A. saman.The bark is a source of tannin, but yields are low (13%) (Japing, 1936; Valkenburg, 1997). The pounded bark is used as a fish poison and the leaves are used as an insecticide in Nepal (Valkenburg, 1997).
Uses: Land Uses
A. procera is a useful tree for farm and amenity planting, light shade, firebreaks and for the rehabilitation of seasonally dry, eroded and degraded soils (Doran and Turnbull, 1997). In Cuba it is used as a shade tree over coffee (Cumba et al., 1992) and in Himachal Pradesh, India it has been tested successfully as an agroforestry species in an alley cropping system with rain-fed wheat (Chauhan et al., 1995). A. procera has been established successfully on sodic soils (pH of the surface layer 7.8-9.7) in India with site amelioration measures generally resulting in all-round better growth of trees (Sharma et al. 1993; Chaturvedi and Behl, 1996).It has been planted on saline sites in India with some success (ICFRE, 1995). In the Philippines, farmers conserve trees of A. procera in the landscape because they cast only a light shade, fix nitrogen, and serve as a cash reserve as the trees are in demand by local carvers (Valkenburg, 1997). In Bangladesh A. procera is regarded as a soil improver and is used as a nurse tree in tea gardens, coffee and cocoa plantings (Mohiuddin, 1997).
Uses List
Environmental > Soil improvement
Environmental > Windbreak
Materials > Carved material
Materials > Dye/tanning
Materials > Fibre
Materials > Miscellaneous materials
Materials > Pesticide
Materials > Wood/timber
Fuels > Charcoal
Fuels > Fuelwood
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Fodder/animal feed
General > Botanical garden/zoo
Environmental > Agroforestry
Environmental > Amenity
Environmental > Boundary, barrier or support
Environmental > Erosion control or dune stabilization
Materials > Poisonous to fish
Materials > Resins
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Ornamental > Seed trade
Wood Products
Charcoal
Containers > Boxes
Containers > Cases
Containers > Cooperage
Containers > Crates
Containers > Pallets
Containers > Tanks
Containers > Vats
Furniture
Pulp > Short-fibre pulp
Roundwood > Building poles
Roundwood > Pit props
Roundwood > Posts
Roundwood > Transmission poles
Sawn or hewn building timbers > For heavy construction
Vehicle bodies
Veneers
Woodware > Industrial and domestic woodware
Woodware > Wood carvings
Sawn or hewn building timbers > For light construction
Woodware > Tool handles
Woodware > Cutlery
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Although no specific information is available on the control of A. procera, herbicides such as imazapyr, triclopyr and glyphosate have been used to control areas invaded by other Albizia species (USDA-NRCS, 2016).
Silviculture Characteristics
A. procera is a fast-growing, semi-deciduous, light-demanding and fairly drought-tolerant species. The seedlings are somewhat frost-tender and this limits plantings to altitudes up to 1500 m in the tropics and 1200 m in the subtropics (Valkenburg, 1997). The tree can be heavily pruned or pollarded to give a bushy crown (Hearne, 1975). A. procera root suckers after damage (Troup, 1921) and coppices readily (Ryan and Bell, 1989). In the absence of regular burning it will colonize Imperata grassland (Tracey, 1982). The tree is classed as a light demander but will tolerate moderate shade in the pole stage (ICFRE, 1995). A. procera has been tested in India in saline and alkaline areas with considerable success (ICFRE, 1995; Jha, 1997).
Silviculture Characteristics
Tolerates > drought
Tolerates > waterlogging
Ability to > sucker
Ability to > fix nitrogen
Ability to > regenerate rapidly
Ability to > coppice
Ability to > pollard
Silviculture Practice
In Australia, A. procera has about 16,600 viable seeds per kilogram, with an average germination rate of 63% (Doran and Turnbull, 1997), but in Indonesia and Bangladesh there are 20,000-24,000 seeds per kilogram (Mohiuddin, 1997; Roshetko, 1997). The seeds germinate readily without pre-treatment when fresh (Campbell, 1980; Matin and Rashid, 1992; Valkenburg, 1997), but seedcoat dormancy develops in the first few months of storage. Mature seed is orthodox and robust in storage, retaining excellent germinative capacity for more than two years when stored in sacks in a dry well-ventilated room and occasionally spread out to air, although by 15 years germinative capacity had dropped to 20% (ICFRE, 1995). Valkenburg (1997) recommended immersing the seed in boiling water for 5 seconds, removing the container from direct heat and then soaking the seed in tap water overnight, as a successful pre-sowing treatment.
Several workers have shown that in addition to the presence of an impermeable seed coat and micropylar plug, dormancy in this species, as well as in the closely related A. lebbeck, is due to a water-soluble inhibitor present in the seed coat (Sajeevukumar et al., 1995; Kannan et al., 1996). Sajeevukumar et al. (1995) reported that the most effective and practical method of pre-treatment was physical scarification followed by soaking in flowing water for 24 hours, while Kannan et al. (1996) recommended scarification with concentrated sulphuric acid for 10 or 20 minutes.
Vegetative propagation of A. procera may be successfully achieved by stumps and stem or root cuttings (National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Valkenburg, 1997). Micropropagation of A. procera is possible from in vitro raised seedlings (Gupta et al., 1992; Hossain et al., 1993; Ahlawat and Sharma, 1997).
In India, natural forests of A. procera are managed in various ways: in the mixed deciduous forests as a coppice crop on a 40 year rotation; in Kerala under a selection system; and in Assam and some eastern States under a clear-felling system with artificial regeneration on a 60 year rotation (ICFRE, 1995).
Natural regeneration of A. procera is successful in parts of India, particularly on moist alluvial ground near rivers and in moist grassy tracts (ICFRE, 1995). Artificial regeneration is done in several ways; by direct sowing in the field (Valkenburg, 1997), stump planting, or planting of bare rooted or container grown seedlings (ICFRE, 1995). The following account of nursery propagation methods used in India is taken from ICFRE (1995). Sowing in the nursery usually takes place in April-May and sown seed is covered with a light layer of straw which is removed after germination. For producing stumps, sowing is done at 5 cm spacing in drills 15 cm apart. When seedlings are about 7.5 cm tall they are transplanted to beds at a spacing of 15 cm x 15 cm to produce one-year-old stump plants or 38 cm x 38 cm to produce two-year-old plants. To produce bare rooted seedlings, sowing is done in drills 8 cm apart. Seedlings reach a height of 15 cm by July-August when they are planted out. In drier areas they may be kept in the nursery for a further 12 months. Seedlings at the second leaf pair stage are transplanted from beds to polythene bags filled with soil, sand and farm-yard manure (3:1:1). Regular movement of the bags in the nursery is essential to prune the strong tap roots. In Australia, containerized seedlings of A. procera are ready for planting out after 3 to 4 months in the nursery (Doran and Turnbull, 1997).
Direct sowing in the field is done in lines 2-3 m apart and after the first growing season seedlings are thinned to approximate a within-line spacing of 0.5 m (ICFRE, 1995). Common spacings for nursery plants are 2 m x 2 m and 3 m x 3 m. In line plantings around agricultural fields, single row spacings of 3 m or 4 m are common (ICFRE, 1995). A. procera is also planted as individual trees, such as when used as a shade tree over tea plantations.
The following account of site preparation practices in India is taken from ICFRE (1995). Once planting sites are cleared of debris by cutting and burning, pits of 30 cubic centimeters are dug before the summer season and weathered over the summer period. On drought-prone or degraded sites where alkalinity or salinity is a problem, larger pit sizes are used (e.g. 60 to 120 cubic centimeters). Here the pits are refilled with imported non-alkaline or non-saline soils which may include additives such as gypsum and farm yard manure. Nonhare and Chaubey (1996) advocated the use of the double ditch method when planting A. procera to conserve water and improve survival and growth in Madhya Pradesh, India. On moist sites such as in Assam, pre-planting preparation of pits is unnecessary (ICFRE, 1995).
A. procera fixes nitrogen after nodulating with certain native strains of Rhizobia (Halliday, 1984; MacDicken, 1994). Artificial inoculation in the nursery either by pelleting the seeds with lignite based culture, or drenching the seedlings with broth culture, improves growth and development of seedlings, as does application of nitrogen (10-20 kg N/ha) and phosphorus (20-40 kg P/ha) (ICFRE, 1995). Tolerance of seedlings to drought is enhanced through application of VAM culture (ICFRE, 1995). Growth of A. procera in the field was significantly improved in Jabalpur, India by rhizobia inoculation and application of 75 g single superphosphate per plant in the year of planting (ICFRE, 1995). Ginwal et al. (1995) reported enhanced growth and nodulation in the same state by application at time of planting of phosphorus (150 kg of single superphosphate (16% P)/ha) and potassium (50 kg of muriate of potash (60% K)/ha).
Irrigation may be required on harsh sites to ensure good survival and growth (ICFRE, 1995). Weeding and control of the undergrowth on a regular basis is recommended, due to the light crown (Valkenburg, 1997). At close spacings, A. procera reaches canopy closure in about 3 years (Valkenburg, 1997). Thinning is then necessary if suppression and mortality of trees is to be avoided. At wider spacings, thinning may be delayed until 9 years (Valkenburg, 1997). Mixed planting and pruning in open stands can improve stem form.
A. procera is prone to breakage by strong winds and is often planted in the central rows of shelterbelts, with more wind-hardy species used in the outer rows (ICFRE, 1995).
Several workers have shown that in addition to the presence of an impermeable seed coat and micropylar plug, dormancy in this species, as well as in the closely related A. lebbeck, is due to a water-soluble inhibitor present in the seed coat (Sajeevukumar et al., 1995; Kannan et al., 1996). Sajeevukumar et al. (1995) reported that the most effective and practical method of pre-treatment was physical scarification followed by soaking in flowing water for 24 hours, while Kannan et al. (1996) recommended scarification with concentrated sulphuric acid for 10 or 20 minutes.
Vegetative propagation of A. procera may be successfully achieved by stumps and stem or root cuttings (National Academy of Sciences, 1979; Valkenburg, 1997). Micropropagation of A. procera is possible from in vitro raised seedlings (Gupta et al., 1992; Hossain et al., 1993; Ahlawat and Sharma, 1997).
In India, natural forests of A. procera are managed in various ways: in the mixed deciduous forests as a coppice crop on a 40 year rotation; in Kerala under a selection system; and in Assam and some eastern States under a clear-felling system with artificial regeneration on a 60 year rotation (ICFRE, 1995).
Natural regeneration of A. procera is successful in parts of India, particularly on moist alluvial ground near rivers and in moist grassy tracts (ICFRE, 1995). Artificial regeneration is done in several ways; by direct sowing in the field (Valkenburg, 1997), stump planting, or planting of bare rooted or container grown seedlings (ICFRE, 1995). The following account of nursery propagation methods used in India is taken from ICFRE (1995). Sowing in the nursery usually takes place in April-May and sown seed is covered with a light layer of straw which is removed after germination. For producing stumps, sowing is done at 5 cm spacing in drills 15 cm apart. When seedlings are about 7.5 cm tall they are transplanted to beds at a spacing of 15 cm x 15 cm to produce one-year-old stump plants or 38 cm x 38 cm to produce two-year-old plants. To produce bare rooted seedlings, sowing is done in drills 8 cm apart. Seedlings reach a height of 15 cm by July-August when they are planted out. In drier areas they may be kept in the nursery for a further 12 months. Seedlings at the second leaf pair stage are transplanted from beds to polythene bags filled with soil, sand and farm-yard manure (3:1:1). Regular movement of the bags in the nursery is essential to prune the strong tap roots. In Australia, containerized seedlings of A. procera are ready for planting out after 3 to 4 months in the nursery (Doran and Turnbull, 1997).
Direct sowing in the field is done in lines 2-3 m apart and after the first growing season seedlings are thinned to approximate a within-line spacing of 0.5 m (ICFRE, 1995). Common spacings for nursery plants are 2 m x 2 m and 3 m x 3 m. In line plantings around agricultural fields, single row spacings of 3 m or 4 m are common (ICFRE, 1995). A. procera is also planted as individual trees, such as when used as a shade tree over tea plantations.
The following account of site preparation practices in India is taken from ICFRE (1995). Once planting sites are cleared of debris by cutting and burning, pits of 30 cubic centimeters are dug before the summer season and weathered over the summer period. On drought-prone or degraded sites where alkalinity or salinity is a problem, larger pit sizes are used (e.g. 60 to 120 cubic centimeters). Here the pits are refilled with imported non-alkaline or non-saline soils which may include additives such as gypsum and farm yard manure. Nonhare and Chaubey (1996) advocated the use of the double ditch method when planting A. procera to conserve water and improve survival and growth in Madhya Pradesh, India. On moist sites such as in Assam, pre-planting preparation of pits is unnecessary (ICFRE, 1995).
A. procera fixes nitrogen after nodulating with certain native strains of Rhizobia (Halliday, 1984; MacDicken, 1994). Artificial inoculation in the nursery either by pelleting the seeds with lignite based culture, or drenching the seedlings with broth culture, improves growth and development of seedlings, as does application of nitrogen (10-20 kg N/ha) and phosphorus (20-40 kg P/ha) (ICFRE, 1995). Tolerance of seedlings to drought is enhanced through application of VAM culture (ICFRE, 1995). Growth of A. procera in the field was significantly improved in Jabalpur, India by rhizobia inoculation and application of 75 g single superphosphate per plant in the year of planting (ICFRE, 1995). Ginwal et al. (1995) reported enhanced growth and nodulation in the same state by application at time of planting of phosphorus (150 kg of single superphosphate (16% P)/ha) and potassium (50 kg of muriate of potash (60% K)/ha).
Irrigation may be required on harsh sites to ensure good survival and growth (ICFRE, 1995). Weeding and control of the undergrowth on a regular basis is recommended, due to the light crown (Valkenburg, 1997). At close spacings, A. procera reaches canopy closure in about 3 years (Valkenburg, 1997). Thinning is then necessary if suppression and mortality of trees is to be avoided. At wider spacings, thinning may be delayed until 9 years (Valkenburg, 1997). Mixed planting and pruning in open stands can improve stem form.
A. procera is prone to breakage by strong winds and is often planted in the central rows of shelterbelts, with more wind-hardy species used in the outer rows (ICFRE, 1995).
Silviculture Practice
Seed storage > orthodox
Vegetative propagation by > cuttings
Vegetative propagation by > stump plants
Vegetative propagation by > tissue culture
Stand establishment using > natural regeneration
Stand establishment using > direct sowing
Stand establishment using > planting stock
Management
In India, A. procera is regarded as a fast-growing species. ICFRE (1995) reported a mean annual increment in girth of 4-10 cm over 12 to 30 years in northern India, with trees in plantations in Tripura attaining an average height of 10.7 m in 10 years. Height growth was reported to be moderately fast by Troup (1921), with seedlings reaching 3.3 m in height in four years. A 6-7-year-old plantation of A. procera at Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India had a mean tree height of 7.8 m and a stem diameter of 26.1 cm. The corresponding mean fuelwood yield was 24.4 kg/tree and 6.8 t/ha (Gupta, 1993). In the same state, A. procera under a silvopastoral system with Cenchrus and Stylosanthes pasture reached an average height of 10.8 m and stem diameter of 30.6 cm in 8-9 years. Total biomass per tree was 174 kg, including 88 kg in the bole, 63 kg in branches, 18 kg in leaves and about 2.5 kg in pods (ICFRE, 1995).
In trials in southeastern Queensland, Australia growth rate and survival varied substantially among provenances. The best-performing provenance (S14962, 12 km south of Port Douglas, Qld) averaged 2.3 m in height after 2 years (Ryan and Bell, 1991). Similar growth rates have been observed in young pioneer trees in the Townsville area in northern Queensland (Lowry and Seebeck, 1997).
Annual wood production of about 10 cubic metre per hectare has been recorded in Java (National Academy of Sciences, 1979). A slow growth rate was recorded in a 4-year-old trial in south Sumatra when compared with Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia mangium and Paraserianthes falcataria (Valkenburg, 1997). Harvesting of stem and leaves from trees over 1 m in height yielded 0.10 and 0.69 kg of wood (fresh weight per tree 36 and 50 months after transplanting of seedlings, respectively) and 1.1 kg of dry leaves after 50 months. Performance was also reported as poor in the Philippines with trees reaching a height of only 34 cm after 3 years (Tumaliuan, 1985). In Thailand, the species grew an average of 1.5 m in 12 months on 3 sites. Survival was excellent in two areas (90%) but poor on a third (49%) (Pinyopusarerk, 1989).
In trials in southeastern Queensland, Australia growth rate and survival varied substantially among provenances. The best-performing provenance (S14962, 12 km south of Port Douglas, Qld) averaged 2.3 m in height after 2 years (Ryan and Bell, 1991). Similar growth rates have been observed in young pioneer trees in the Townsville area in northern Queensland (Lowry and Seebeck, 1997).
Annual wood production of about 10 cubic metre per hectare has been recorded in Java (National Academy of Sciences, 1979). A slow growth rate was recorded in a 4-year-old trial in south Sumatra when compared with Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia mangium and Paraserianthes falcataria (Valkenburg, 1997). Harvesting of stem and leaves from trees over 1 m in height yielded 0.10 and 0.69 kg of wood (fresh weight per tree 36 and 50 months after transplanting of seedlings, respectively) and 1.1 kg of dry leaves after 50 months. Performance was also reported as poor in the Philippines with trees reaching a height of only 34 cm after 3 years (Tumaliuan, 1985). In Thailand, the species grew an average of 1.5 m in 12 months on 3 sites. Survival was excellent in two areas (90%) but poor on a third (49%) (Pinyopusarerk, 1989).
Genetic Resources and Breeding
A. procera has a broad geographic range and it is reasonable to expect large provenance variation in such attributes as growth, form and adaptation to different environments. This is confirmed to some degree by species trials in southeastern Queensland which included a very limited range of Australian provenances of A. procera. Here growth rate and survival at 2 years from planting varied substantially among provenances (Ryan and Bell, 1991). Studies testing a comprehensive range of provenances of A. procera in different environments are warranted given the economic potential of the species. Institutes in Australia, India, Singapore and Thailand are listed as suppliers of seed from native populations of this species (Kindt et al., 1997). No breeding programmes of A. procera are known to exist.In Puerto Rico, A. procera was reported to be reproductively mature after approximately three years and medium-sized trees growing in the open produced 3500 pods in one year. Most of the pods and seeds fell within the extent of the crown (Chinea-Rivera, 1995).
Disadvantages
A. procera has the potential to become a weed in some environments. Lack of information on provenance variation is a constraint to its wider use.
References
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