Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth)
Datasheet Types: Pest, Natural enemy, Invasive species
Abstract
This datasheet on Plutella xylostella covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Seedborne Aspects, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Plutella xylostella Linnaeus
- Preferred Common Name
- diamondback moth
- Other Scientific Names
- Cerastoma maculipennis Curtis (1832)
- Cerastoma xylostella Wood (1839)
- Cerostoma xylostella Linnaeus
- Harpipteryx xylostella None
- Phalaena tinea xylostella Linnaeus (1758)
- Phalaena xylostella Linnaeus
- Plodia maculipennis (Curtis)
- Plutella brassicola Fitch (1856)
- Plutella cruciferarum Zeller
- Plutella limbipennella Clemens (1860)
- Plutella maculata Curtis
- Plutella maculipennis (Curtis)
- Tinea galeatella Mabille (1888)
- International Common Names
- Englishcabbage mothEuropean honeysuckle leafroller
- Spanishgusano de las hojas de la coloruga verde de la coloruga verde del repollopalomilla dorso de diamantepalomilla dorso de diamante (Mexico)palomita de las coles (Argentina)polilla del repollo
- Frenchfausse-teigne des crucifèresteigne des cruciferesteigne du chouteigne du colza
- Local Common Names
- Braziltraca das cruciferas
- Chinasyau tsai e
- Denmarkkalmoel
- Finlandkaalikoi
- GermanyGemuese-MotteKohl-SchabeSchleier-Motte
- Israelash hakruv
- Italytignola dei cavoli
- Japankonaga
- Malaysiarama rama intanulat Plutella
- Netherlandskoolmotje
- Norwaykalmoll
- Swedenkalmal
- Thailandnorn yai
- Turkeylahana guvesi
- English acronym
- DBM
- EPPO Code
- PLUTMA
Pictures

Adult
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); adult at rest in the field. Michigan, USA.
©David Cappaert/Michigan State University/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Adult
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); adult resting. Laboratory image. Bartlesville, Oklahoma, USA.
©Mark Dreiling/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Larva
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); larva, full grown. Laboratory image. Michigan, USA.
©David Cappaert/Michigan State University/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Larva
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); larva - intercepted on Erysimum (wallflower) from Germany at Atlanta International Airport, Plant Protection & Quarantine. Georgia, USA.
©Charles Olsen/USDA APHIS PPQ/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Larva
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); larva, close anterior view - intercepted on Erysimum (wallflower) from Germany at Atlanta International Airport, Plant Protection & Quarantine. Georgia, USA.
©Charles Olsen/USDA APHIS PPQ/Bugwood.org - CC BY-NC 3.0 US

Early instar
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); Early instar. May 2014.
©CABI

Pupa
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); field collected pupa - note loosely woven cocoon. Indonesia.
©Merle Shepard, Gerald R.Carner & P.A.C Ooi/Insects and their Natural Enemies Associated with Vegetables and Soybean in Southeast Asia/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US

Pupa
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); Pupa.
©Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State University/via Bugwood.org - CC BY US 3.0

Larva
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); Larva on broccoli leaf (Brassica oleracea var. italica).
©Russ Ottens, University of Georgia/via Bugwood.org - CC BY US 3.0

Pupae
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); field collected pupa - note polymorphism. USA
©Alton N. Sparks Jr/University of Georgia/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US

Larval damage
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); larval damage in the field - host plant, cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata).
©Alton N. Sparks Jr/University of Georgia/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US

Larval damage
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); larval damage in the field - host plant, cabbage collards and kale (Brassica oleracea L.)
©Alton N. Sparks Jr/University of Georgia/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US

Larval damage
Plutella xylostella (diamondback moth); larva and damage on cabbage in a field crop. USA.
©Whitney Cranshaw/Colorado State University/Bugwood.org - CC BY 3.0 US

Symptoms on cabbage
Damage to cabbage caused by P. xylostella.
Trevor Lewis

Adult
Adult (museum set specimen).
©Georg Goergen/IITA Insect Museum, Cotonou, Benin
Summary of Invasiveness
The diamondback moth (P. xylostella) is one of the most studied insect pests in the world, yet it is among the 'leaders' of the most difficult pests to control. It was the first crop insect reported to develop resistance to microbial Bacillus thuringiensis insecticides, and has shown resistance to almost every insecticide, including the most recent groups such as diamide. P. xylostella is a highly invasive species. It may have its origin in Europe, South Africa or East Asia, but is now present wherever its cruciferous hosts exist and is considered to be the most universally distributed Lepidoptera. It is highly migratory and wind-borne adults can travel long distances to invade crops in other regions, countries and continents. Immature stages also hitchhike on plant parts and can establish in new areas. P. xylostella costs the global economy an estimated US$4-5 billion annually, but its impacts on local biodiversity and habitats in exotic ranges are unknown. Climate change is expected to cause range shifts and change the population dynamics of P. xylostella and its parasitoid associates.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Diamondback moth was first described under the name Plutella tinea xylostella Linnaeus 1758. Confusion over the correct taxonomic name followed and for a time Plutella maculipennis Curtis, 1832 was the assigned name but in 1973 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature designated xylostella as the correct species name, thus establishing P. xylostella (Linnaeus) as the official scientific name (Moriuti, 1986). Molecular studies discovered that a cryptic species, Plutella australiana, was hidden in populations thought to be P. xylostella in Australia (Landry and Hebert, 2013). Although they have the capacity to hybridize, there is strong genomic and phenotypic divergence between the two species supporting contrasting colonization histories and reproductive isolation (Perry et al., 2018). Another species, Plutella armoraciae has been found in association with P. xylostella in British Columbia, Canada (Abram et al., 2021). P. armoraciae has sometimes been confused as a lighter coloured population of P. xylostella.
Description
Adult
The adult is greyish brown with a 9-mm-long body and a wingspan of about 12-15 mm (Reid and Cuthbert, 1971). In males, the upper (costal) two-thirds of forewing is light fuscous, sometimes partially ochre-tinged; sometimes mixed with whitish scales, and flecked with scanty small blackish dots. The lower one-third of the forewing is ochreous-white, the upper edge being nearly white, margined broadly with dark brown or black-brown. In females, the upper two-thirds of the forewing is light ochreous or light grey-ochreous, the contrast is not so pronounced between upper and lower portions in colouration, but the markings are like those of males. When wings are folded, three or four diamond-shaped areas formed by forewings are visible on the dorsal side when the moth is at rest, hence the common name 'diamondback moth'. Moriuti (1986) gives details of wing venation and genitalia. The moths are weak fliers and can disperse, on average, only 13-35 m within a crop field (Mo et al., 2003). They are readily carried by the wind and can travel long distances, at 400-500 km per night (Chapman et al., 2002; Hopkinson and Soroka, 2010).
Egg
Eggs are 0.44 x 0.26 mm, oval and flattened, and yellow or pale green. They are deposited singly or in small groups of 2-10 eggs on foliage surfaces (Hardy, 1938; Talekar et al., 1994) or on other plant parts (Sarfraz et al., 2005a).
Larva
A fully-grown larva is 10 mm long. The head capsule is pale to pale greenish or pale brown, mottled with brownish and black-brown spots. The eye spot is black. The body is green, sometimes tinged with pale yellow with distinct body segments, and bears a few short hairs, marked by the presence of small white patches. The larva has five pairs of prolegs; a pair of prolegs protrudes from the posterior end forming a distinctive 'V'-shape. Moriuti (1986) gives details of other morphological characters such as spiracles, legs, mouthparts and chaetotaxy.
The larva, when disturbed, curls and wriggles backward violently and may drop off the plant, where it can hang suspended on a silken thread (Sarfraz et al., 2009b). The sex of the moth can be visually distinguished from the third instar larva onwards. In males the fifth segment is distinctly yellow, such colouration is not found in the female larva (Liu and Tabashnik, 1997).
Pupa
The pupa is 5-6 mm, about four times as long as the width. It is enclosed in a white, loose, silken cocoon. Sometimes pupation may take place without a silken cocoon (e.g. when larvae are fed on an unusual food plant). The 'naked' pupae fall off the plants and their survival is generally very low. Initially the pupa is pinkish-white to pinkish-yellow with subdorsal and subspiracular lines. Pupal colour changes to brown before adult emergence. The tenth abdominal segment has hooked setae.
Distribution
The diamondback moth may have its origin in Europe (Hardy, 1938) but on the basis of the large complex and sexual forms of its parasitoids and host plants found in South Africa, Kfir (1998) speculated that it originated in South Africa and then dispersed to Europe. Using similar arguments, Liu et al. (2000) are of the view that diamondback moth originated in East Asia. North American populations of diamondback moth are most probably of European origin (Hardy, 1938).
This crucifer specialist is now present wherever its host plants exist and is considered to be the most universally distributed of all Lepidoptera (Shelton, 2004). Its infestation level varies from year to year and location to location depending on factors such as environmental conditions, natural enemies, overwintering populations and migrations. Vast migrant swarms have been recorded, for example, in the UK in June 2016 (NorfolkMoths.co.uk). P. xylostella populations annually disperse into Canada from the southern United States and Mexico, and the species is found in all Canadian provinces (Mason et al., 2021). Climate change modelling predicts that P. xylostella distributions will shift as global temperatures rise with implications for the impact of natural enemies (Furlong and Zalucki, 2017; Furlong et al., 2021).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
The native range of P. xylostella is uncertain, although Africa, Asia and Europe have been proposed as the centre of origin (Hardy, 1938; Kfir, 1998; Liu et al., 2000). Whatever the origin, Hardy (1938) proposed that widespread dispersal took place a very long time ago based on the presence of associated parasitoid communities that include species common to many of the regions invaded. In future, resident populations are likely to establish in areas that experience annual migrations due to climate change (Dosdall et al., 2008; Dancau et al., 2018).
Risk of Introduction
Plutella xylostella has an extensive global distribution. Though some countries in Africa and northern South America are not included in the geographical distribution maps, the pest may well be present in these countries. Further, long-distance migrations of this insect in air currents (Talekar and Shelton, 1993; Chapman et al., 2002) could carry it to P. xylostella-free countries. Annual migrations on low level jet winds can also result in reinvasion of areas where P. xylostella does not overwinter (Dosdall et al., 2004; Hopkinson and Soroka, 2010).
Immature stages of P. xylostella could disperse via seedling transplants (Shelton and Wyman, 1992), crop residues (Chua and Lim, 1977) and through transnational trade of cruciferous vegetables (Tan and Lim, 1985). However, P. xylostella does not pose a serious phytosanitary risk. Close inspection of crucifer vegetables (leaves, stems, flowers, green pods) passing through international trade can, at best, postpone the inevitable entry of the pest. A greater concern is the movement of resistant individuals between countries, which could have serious implications on the control of the pest. Mountains may serve as a barrier to migrations and gene flow (Niu et al., 2014).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural dispersal (non-biotic)
It is well known that P. xylostella can disperse via air convection currents across national boundaries (List, 1937; French, 1967; Thygesen, 1968; Lempke, 1978; Bretherton, 1982). Migration of adults to eastern Scotland, UK, was seen from lighthouses and the source of migration was suggested as the west of the former Soviet Union (Shaw, 1962). French (1967) suggested that migratory movements of P. xylostella, which is related to synoptic weather could involve journeys of some 23,000 miles and continuous flight for several days. The species reportedly does not overwinter in Canada but is carried northwards each year from the USA by southerly winds (Anon., 1974). Hopkinson and Soroka (2010) demonstrated using an air trajectory model that high densities of P. xylostella on the Canadian prairies could be traced back to strong airflow from the southern USA. Similarly, on the basis of molecular analyses, Wei et al. (2013) concluded that P. xylostella populations migrate within China from the southern to northern regions with rare effective migration in the reverse direction.
It is also possible that the immature stages of this pest could be transported by wind by attaching itself to plant parts that are carried in the wind (Wu, 1968).
Accidental Introduction
Agricultural practices- P. xylostella immature stages could disperse themselves via transplants (seedlings). For example, cabbage seedlings imported from the southern states of the USA, Florida and Georgia, into the northern state of New York, were found to be infested with P. xylostella (Shelton and Wyman, 1992). Dispersal of pupae and other immature stages could occur through the movement of plant (leaves) residues left in the field or transported for disposal after harvest (Chua and Lim, 1977).
Movement in trade- Transnational movement of P. xylostella through trade was reported in a study on imported cruciferous vegetables, cabbages, from Indonesia into Malaysia. The study revealed that P. xylostella larvae and adults were among the arthropods found within the cabbage heads (Tan and Lim, 1985).
Pathway Causes
Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crop production (pathway cause) | Yes | |||
Hitchhiker (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
Containers and packaging - wood (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
Land vehicles (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
Mail (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
Plants or parts of plants (pathway vector) | Eggs, larvae, pupae | Yes | Yes | |
Soil, sand and gravel (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
Wind (pathway vector) | Adults | Yes | Yes |
Plant Trade
Plant parts liable to carry the pest in trade/transport | Pest stages | Borne internally | Borne externally | Visibility of pest or symptoms |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bark | eggs; larvae | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye | |
Flowers/Inflorescences/Cones/Calyx | adults; eggs; larvae; pupae | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye | |
Fruits (inc. pods) | eggs; larvae; pupae | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye | |
Growing medium accompanying plants | eggs; pupae | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye | |
Leaves | eggs; larvae; pupae | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
Seedlings/Micropropagated plants | eggs; larvae; pupae | Yes | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
Stems (above ground)/Shoots/Trunks/Branches | eggs; larvae; pupae | Yes | Pest or symptoms usually visible to the naked eye |
Plant parts not known to carry the pest in trade/transport |
---|
Bulbs/Tubers/Corms/Rhizomes |
Roots |
True seeds (inc. grain) |
Wood |
Wood Packaging
Wood packaging not known to carry the pest in trade/transport | Timber type | Used as packing |
---|---|---|
Loose wood packing material | ||
Processed or treated wood | ||
Solid wood packing material with bark | ||
Solid wood packing material without bark |
Hosts/Species Affected
The natural host plant range of P. xylostella is limited to Brassicaceae which are characterized by having glucosinolates, sulfur-containing secondary plant compounds. Glucosinolates may be toxic to generalist insects, but P. xylostella is known to rely on some of them for host location, oviposition and herbivory. Certain glucosinolates, cardenolides, plant volatiles, waxes, as well as host plant nutritional quality, leaf morphology and leaf colour, or a combination of these factors, may trigger reproductive and feeding activities of P. xylostella (Sarfraz et al., 2006 and references therein).
Brassicaceous weeds, such as Sinapis arvensis (wild mustard), Erysimum cheiranthoides (wormseed mustard), Capsella bursa-pastoris (shepherd’s purse) and Barbarea vulgaris (yellow rocket) serve as alternate hosts (Harcourt, 1957; Idris and Grafius, 1996; Sarfraz et al., 2011). These plant hosts are particularly important when the wind-borne moths arrive in parts of the canola growing areas in Canada from the southern USA early enough that many of the canola crops will not have emerged yet (Canola Council of Canada, 2014). In these situations the brassicaceous weeds become important alternate 'bridge' hosts (Dosdall et al., 2011).
Some populations have also been found to infest non-brassicaceous plants (see List of Hosts). However, host plant shift from feeding on Brassicaceae to feeding on non-Brassicaceae may depend on geographical populations. For example, a Kenyan population of P. xylostella adapted to Pisum sativum (sugar snap and snow varieties) (Löhr and Gathu, 2002) whereas a Canadian population, despite multiple attempts, could not survive on peas in the laboratory (M Sarfraz, University of British Columbia, Canada, unpublished data). Other reported host plants include Abelmoschus esculentus (okra), Cicer arietinum (chickpea) and Salsola kali (prickly saltwort, prickly glasswort) but these records need verification (Löhr and Gathu, 2002).
For further information on hosts, see Sarfraz et al. (2006; 2010; 2011) and references therein, and Sakakibara and Takashino (2004).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Growth Stages
Fruiting stage
Flowering stage
Seedling stage
Vegetative growing stage
Symptoms
The first-instar (neonate) larvae mine into leaf tissue immediately after hatching and emerge to become surface feeders beginning in the second instar. With their chewing mouthparts the larvae feed voraciously on the leaves leaving a papery epidermis intact. This type of damage gives the appearance of translucent windows or 'shot holes' in the leaf blades. P. xylostella larvae and, in many cases, pupae are found on the damaged leaves. In cases of severe infestation, entire leaves could be lost, leaving only the veins.
In oilseed rape and canola, the larvae nibble the chlorophyll-rich green areas of stems and developing siliques (pods) and the damage shows from a distance as an unusual whitening of the crop. The damage is often first evident on plants growing on ridges and knolls in the field (Canola Council of Canada, 2021). Heavily damaged plants appear stunted and, in most cases, die.
Larvae also feed on flower buds, flowers and young siliques. The seeds within damaged siliques do not fill completely and siliques may shatter prematurely. Larvae also chew into siliques and consume the developing seeds. Extensive feeding on the reproductive plant parts significantly reduces crop yields (Canola Council of Canada, 2021).
List of Symptoms/Signs
Symptom or sign | Life stages | Sign or diagnosis | Disease stage |
---|---|---|---|
Plants/Fruit/external feeding | |||
Plants/Growing point/external feeding | |||
Plants/Inflorescence/external feeding | |||
Plants/Leaves/external feeding | |||
Plants/Stems/external feeding |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Certain other lepidopteran pests such as Crocidolomia binotalis, Hellula undalis, Trichoplusia ni, Pieris rapae, Spodoptera litura and Spodoptera exigua can attack crucifers at the same time as P. xylostella. With the exception of the first instar stage, where most larval species are not morphologically distinguishable, the morphological characters of these insects at the later stages are distinctly different from those of Plutella. Except for Hellula, all other pests feed on leaves. Hellula larvae bore into the growing points of seedlings. These lepidopterans are nocturnal, except Pieris. However, tiny Plutella adults can be seen flying in the field even during daytime, especially when the plants are disturbed. Plutella damage can be distinguished from the damage caused by the other larvae by the presence of translucent 'windows' caused by the P. xylostella (see Symptoms).
Habitat
Plutella xylostella populations are present mainly in Brassicaceae crops. These monoculture habitats provide a vast food resource which favours high levels of survival and development of massive numbers of individuals. In North America and Europe canola and oilseed rape (Brassica napus and Brassica rapa [Brassica campestris]) and mustard (Brassica juncea and Sinapis alba) are widely grown while in most other regions the main crops are Brassica oleracea varieties. Habitats containing brassicaceous weeds can provide important bridge hosts for P. xylostella (Dosdall et al., 2011).
Crop habitats in tropical and subtropical regions where mean daily temperatures are high (25-30oC) experience multiple (up to 20) generations in 1 year (Talekar and Shelton, 1993) due to development times from egg to adult that are less than 14 days (Marchioro and Foerster, 2011). In comparison, temperate climates may have five generations at most (Harcourt, 1986). Rainfall can have a significant impact on P. xylostella (Talekar and Shelton, 1993) and populations in those regions or seasons with high rainfall suffer the highest mortality (Sivapragasam et al., 1988; Keinmeesuke et al., 1992). P. xylostella populations in Thailand are affected differently by parasitoids in highland versus lowland habitats (Keinmeesuke et al., 1992).
Habitat List
Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Protected agriculture (e.g. glasshouse production) | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
Plutella xylostella individuals are genetically similar worldwide, with substantial gene flow having been documented among distant geographic populations (Caprio and Tabashnik, 1992; Chang et al., 1997; Li et al., 2006; Pichon et al., 2006; Wei et al., 2013; Murthy et al., 2014; Perry et al., 2020). However, genetically distinct entities (e.g. individuals that resist certain insecticides) may be present within local populations (Tabashnik et al., 1997).
Reproductive Biology
Plutella xylostella is a holometabolous insect with four life stages, egg, larva, pupa and imago (adult). Mating takes place soon after adults emerge, generally at night and duration of copulation may be 50 to 109 min (Lee et al., 1995). Females oviposit most of the eggs on the first day after copulation and depending on number of matings they produce 71.27 ± 4.68 to 127.87 ± 21.98 eggs (Wang et al., 2005). Multiple matings reduce fecundity and reproductive success. Development of each life stage is as follows:
Egg- The small (0.44 x 0.26 mm) yellowish eggs can readily be seen in the field using a hand lens (Harcourt, 1961). The incubation period of P. xylostella eggs depends upon temperature. Harcourt (1957) reported it to be 4-8 days in Ontario, Canada, the average being 5.6 days, whereas in Malaysia, it averaged only 3 days (Ooi and Kelderman, 1979). Yamada and Kawasaki (1983) have determined the effective thermal total (degree-days) for the development of the egg to be 52 above 7.2°C (threshold temperature for egg development). The rate of hatching is negatively correlated with temperature (Yamada and Kawasaki, 1983).
Larva- There are four instars. The first instar normally mines in the leaf tissue. After the first instar, the larvae are surface feeders and eat voraciously. Fully-grown caterpillars are green and 10-12 mm long (New South Wales Department of Agriculture, 1983).
The rate of development of larvae is temperature dependent. Development of the larval stage was 15-21 days (first instar, 4.0-5.5; second instar, 3.5-4.5; third instar, 3.4-5.0; and fourth instar, 4.2-5.6) in Ontario (Harcourt, 1957), 10-30 days in New South Wales, Australia (New South Wales Department of Agriculture, 1983); but only 6 days in Malaysia (Ooi and Kelderman, 1979). In Yamada and Kawasaki's (1983) laboratory study, the larval period ranged from 7.8 to 19.5 days at the temperature range of 32.5-17.5°C. With a threshold temperature of 8.5°C, the effective thermal total (degree-days) for larval development is 161 (Yamada and Kawasaki, 1983). Liu et al. (1985) detected differences in developmental rate among field populations. They concluded this to be due to the differences in field environments such as climate, food source, etc. Thus, differences among populations and temperature conditions should be taken into account while predicting build-up of populations of P. xylostella larvae and deciding the time of sampling. Idris (1998) and Sarfraz et al. (2007; 2011) reported that the developmental times of P. xylostella larvae were significantly affected by feeding on various cultivated and wild food plants. The nutritional quality of host plants also affects larval development times (Sarfraz et al., 2009b).
Pupa- The pupae are encased in loosely woven cocoons, often fastened to the plant parts (mostly leaves) and frequently hidden in crevices near the bud. Spinning of the cocoon by the fully-grown larvae is followed by 1 or 2 days of quiescence that marks the prepupal stage. The time from cocoon spinning to pupation is temperature dependent; maximum development being at 27.5°C (Yamada and Kawasaki, 1983). In Ontario, the prepupal stage varied from 1 to 2 days and the pupal stage from 5 to 15 days with an average of 8.5 days (Harcourt, 1957), whereas in New South Wales, Australia the pupal stage is reported to be 1-2 weeks. In tropical countries such as Malaysia, the pupal period may be less than 4 days (Ooi and Kelderman, 1979). According to Yamada and Kawasaki (1983), the pupal period under laboratory conditions ranges from 3.9 to 9.6 days for a temperature range of 32.5-17.5°C.
The threshold temperature for pupal development is 9.8°C, the effective thermal total (day-degrees) for the pupal stage is calculated to be 61. The rate of adult emergence is 42-53.4% within the temperature range of 17.5-27.5°C. Above this temperature, emergence decreases (Yamada and Kawasaki, 1983).
Adult- The sex ratio is more or less 1:1. Mating begins at dusk on the day of emergence. Oviposition begins shortly after dusk and reaches its peak about 2 h later; few eggs are laid after midnight. The average longevity of female and male is 16 and 12 days, respectively. Almost 95% of the females begin laying eggs on the day of emergence; this process lasts 10 days and the number of eggs laid per female ranges from 159 (Harcourt, 1957) to 288 (Ooi and Kelderman, 1979). Sivapragasam and Heong (1984) showed that temperature had a significant effect on adult survival, oviposition rates and generation and that the temperature most favourable for P. xylostella was around 30°C on the basis of the intrinsic rate of increase (rmax). The relationship between temperature and longevity fitted a logistic equation whilst relationships of oviposition rate and rmax with temperature fitted polynomial equations.
Generations- P. xylostella has a wide ecological tolerance, which enables it to reproduce under extremely varied climatic conditions. As its life history is influenced by temperature, the generation time varies accordingly (Chua and Lim, 1977). In warm conditions the life cycle takes about 3 weeks although it may sometimes be as short as 16 days (New South Wales Department of Agriculture, 1983). In more temperate climates it may be extended up to 6 weeks (Canada Department of Agriculture, 1976) or more (Harcourt, 1957). Wu (1968) determined that one generation could be completed in 13-34 days at room temperature (23°C), 13-37 days in field conditions and 17-20 days at a constant temperature of 23°C. Thus, there could be as many as 19 generations of this pest per annum in the laboratory and 18 generations outside. However, in the field, 10-14 generations have been recorded in the tropics (Hardy, 1938; Bonnemaison, 1965; Abraham and Padmanaban, 1968; Koshihara and Yamada, 1981) but only four generations in cold places such as Ottawa, Canada (Harcourt, 1957).
Harcourt (1954) calculated that one generation of P. xylostella required 283 degree-days in the laboratory above a threshold of 7.3°C, whereas Bahar et al. (2014) reported 143 degree-days above a threshold of 4.23°C. Similar results (293 degree-days) were also obtained under field conditions (Butts and McEwen, 1981). Umeya and Yamada (1973) detected slight local differences in development characteristics such as threshold temperature (ranging from 7.4 to 9.5°C) but concluded that these differences were related neither to the geographical location nor to the climatic gradient.
Seasonality- P. xylostella breeds all the year round in the tropics but in colder regions it likely overwinters in a quiescent state in no specific overwintering stage (Harcourt, 1954; Razumov, 1970; Dancau et al., 2018). In places of extremely low temperature where the moth cannot even hibernate, annual infestations arise from adult migration from nearby warmer regions in the spring (Harcourt, 1961; Putnam, 1978; Butts and McEwen, 1981; Hopkinson and Soroka, 2010; Wei et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2015). In Canada, seasonal abundance of P. xylostella in any given year depends on two major factors: overwintering populations in the southern USA and northern Mexico, and spring winds to transport the moths north into eastern and western Canada (Harcourt and Cass, 1966; Hopkinson and Soroka, 2010; Dancau et al., 2018).
Many reports describe the seasonal abundance of diamondback moth in relation to different climatic conditions (Harcourt, 1957; Shaw, 1959; Wu, 1968; Iga, 1985). Although the moth breeds throughout the year in tropical conditions, the species, along with many other leaf-feeding insects, infests cruciferous crops such as Chinese cabbage or common cabbage during the cool and dry season. Heavy rain appears to be detrimental to infestation (Talekar and Lee, 1985). However, Yamada and Kawasaki (1983) reported that the rates of development (e.g. hatching, pupation, adult emergence) of P. xylostella were not affected by the level of humidity. Rainfall, along with other limiting factors (e.g. food scarcity, natural enemies), influences its population density as shown in life table and other ecological studies (Harcourt, 1963; Iga, 1985; Sivapragasam et al., 1988).
Physiology and Phenology
Understanding of the physiological processes of P. xylostella has advanced in recent years and offers the potential to revolutionize management of this pest (Philips et al., 2014). Molecular technologies have played an important role. Gong et al. (2010) cloned and sequenced two full-length cDNA codings for chemosensory proteins, and determined that these proteins are found in all larval stages and thus may have olfactory and non-olfactory functions. Shi et al. (2020) found the genes, Fib-L, P25 and Fib-H, that are involved in cocoon spinning and cocoon structure in the final instar of P. xylostella larvae.
Sun et al. (2013) identified and cloned six candidate pheromone receptor genes in P. xyllostella which display male-biased expression and Lee et al. (2011) found that suppression of P. xyllostella pheromone biosynthesis-activating neuropeptide (Plx-PBANr) reduced pheromone production of females.
Bautista et al. (2009) found that overexpression of the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP6BG1 is linked to resistance of P. xylostella larvae to permethrin. Endersby et al. (2011) documented that the skdrl and cdr alleles of the sodium channel para gene confer resistance to pyrethroid insecticides in Australian populations of P. xylostella. Ward et al. (2021) identified an amino acid substitution linked to diamide resistance. You et al. (2013) performed whole-genome sequence of P. xylostella and identified 1412 unique genes associated with perception and the detoxification of plant defence compounds.
Xia et al. (2013) and Li et al. (2017) used DNA sequencing to examine the midgut microbiota of P. xylostella and found differences in the midgut microbiota among susceptible and insecticide-resistant lines.
Shi et al. (2013; 2015) found that parasitism by Cotesia vestalis significantly downregulated, or delayed, expression of genes encoding pro-neuropeptides and may account for the previously decreased feeding behaviour, reduced growth rates and aborted development in the host larvae. Xu et al. (2017) identified 23 miRNAs some of which play critical roles in host-pathogen interaction between P. xylostella and Isaria fumosorosea [Cordyceps fumosorosea].
Longevity
Plutella xylostella adults live for approximately 33.5 days after emergence under ideal conditions (e.g. temperatures from 22.4 to 29.8ºC and 38-80% relative humidity) (Canico et al., 2013). However, other factors such as food quality, body size, temperature regimes and abiotic factors influence longevity (see Atwal, 1955; Shirai, 1995; Mohapatra et al., 2006; Golizadeh et al., 2009).
Activity Patterns
Plutella xylostella appears not to hibernate during cold periods nor does it aestivate during hot spells. In cool conditions, it undergoes quiescent periods whereby reproduction processes are reduced (Gu, 2009; Dancau et al., 2018). It is a highly migrant species (Chu, 1986; Chapman et al., 2002; Furlong et al., 2013; Wei et al., 2013) and what triggers this behaviour is still unknown.
Population Size and Density
Populations of P. xylostella can reach extremely high numbers depending on number of generations, food availability and mortality parameters. A study at Uttar Pradesh, India in cauliflower found that population densities of P. xylostella were highest (31.43 larvae and pupae/plant at one location) at the end of September when favourable temperatures (13.4 to 24.8°C) and relative humidity (59.3 to 89.0 %), low rainfall (14.0 mm) and parasitism levels of 10% occurred (Ahmad and Ansari, 2010).
Climate
Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | Preferred | |
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Preferred |
Seedborne Aspects
Effect on Seed Quality
Feeding by P. xylostella can cause indirect or direct damage to canola seed (Canola Council of Canada, 2021). Plant vigour is affected when larvae feed extensively on foliage or developing flowers leading to reduced seed production. When plants are fully podded larvae will feed on the surface tissue of the stems and pods. This causes seeds within a damaged pod to not fill completely and the pods may shatter, resulting in yield loss. Direct damage is caused when larvae chew into pods and consume the developing seeds. Yield loss can be extreme in prairie fields with high infestations.
Pathogen Transmission
Plutella xylostella feeding damage to canola pods can lead to secondary infection by pathogens, such as Erysiphe cruciferarum (powdery mildew) and Alternaria spp., particularly during wet periods (Canola Council of Canada, 2021).
Natural enemy of
Notes on Natural Enemies
All stages of P. xylostella are attacked by numerous parasites and predators. Worldwide, the parasitoid complex that attacks P. xylostella is composed of approximately 60 species, considerably fewer than previously suggested, and only around 14 species are frequently recovered (Furlong et al., 2013).
Egg parasitoids belonging to the polyphagous genera Trichogramma and Trichogrammatoidea contribute little to natural control and require frequent mass releases. Larval parasites are the most predominant and effective. Many of the effective larval parasites belong to two major genera, Diadegma and Cotesia; a few Diadromus spp., most of which are pupal parasites, also exert significant control. The majority of these species come from Europe where P. xylostella is believed to have originated (Sarfraz et al., 2005b, and references therein). In regions where P. xylostella is not resident it has been hypothesized that the major parasitoid species also migrate into these areas but there has been no conclusive proof to validate this (Mason et al., 2021), except for Microplitis plutellae. Putnam (1978) determined that in Saskatchewan, a portion of each M. plutellae generation entered diapause and overwintered, and a portion of the population even survives for two winters. He hypothesized that this reservoir population would compensate for years when diamondback moth hosts were not present.
South and South East Asia, the Pacific islands, Central America, the Caribbean and most of sub-Saharan Africa are most intensively plagued by P. xylostella because these areas lack effective larval parasitoids. This contrasts with countries in continental Europe and North America, which are endowed with many Diadegma, Cotesia and Diadromus species.
In Canada, a complex of at least ten parasitoid species are associated with P. xylostella (Mason et al., 2022). Among the widespread species, the larval parastiod Diadegma insulare is the most abundant, while Microplitis plutellae and the pupal parasitoid Diadromus subtilicornis are less abundant. Diolcogaster claritibia is likely a recent introduction from Europe to North America (Fernández-Triana et al., 2014) and Oomyzus sokolowskii appears to be expanding its range northward (Mason et al., 2022).
In Switzerland, a complex of eight species are associated with P. xylostella (Haye et al., 2021). Among these, the larval parasitoids Diadegma fenestrale and Diadegma semiclausum were the most abundant, followed by the pupal parasitoid Diadromus collaris. Both D. semiclausum and D. collaris have been introduced into other regions (Furlong et al., 2013). However, D. fenestrale is dominant early in the season (Haye et al., 2021) and may be a good candidate for introduction into regions where P. xylostella populations are high at that time.
Predators of P. xylostella have been poorly studied although numerous studies have indicated that they can have a significant impact (Muckenfuss et al., 1992; Furlong et al., 2004a, b; 2008a; 2014; Liu et al., 2005; Dancau et al., 2020; Farias et al., 2021). Generalist groups, such as ground beetles (Carabidae), lady beetles (Coccinellidae), lacewings (Crysopidae), ants (Formicidae) and spiders (Clubionidae, Linyphiidae, Lycosidae, Miturgidae, Oxyobidae, Salticidae and Theridiidae) are the major predators of P. xylostella. Furlong et al. (2014) found that eggs and neonate suffered the highest predation levels.
Pathogens that attack P. xylostella include fungi, viruses and nematodes (Furlong et al., 2013). Among these, Zoophthora radicans, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, and Isaria farinosa (=Paecilomyces farinosus) are important fungal pathogens (Sarfraz et al., 2005). Z. radicans and B. bassiana have potential for artificial transmission (Furlong et al., 1995; Furlong and Pell, 1997a; 2001). Granulosis, nuclearpolyhedrosis and cyproviruses have also been isolated from P. xylostella (Grzywacz et al., 2010).
Natural enemies
Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Apanteles halfordi | Parasite | Larvae | ||||
Apanteles ippeus | Parasite | Larvae | ||||
Apanteles piceotrichosus | Parasite | Larvae | ||||
Bacillus cereus | Pathogen | Larvae | ||||
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) | ||||||
Bacillus thuringiensis aizawai | Pathogen | Larvae | Karnataka; Philippines | |||
Bacillus thuringiensis alesti | Pathogen | Larvae | ||||
Bacillus thuringiensis galleriae | Pathogen | Larvae | ||||
Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki | Pathogen | Larvae | Karnataka | |||
Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. dendrolimus | Pathogen | Larvae | ||||
Bacillus thuringiensis thuringiensis | Pathogen | Larvae | ||||
Baculovirus | Pathogen | Larvae | ||||
Beauveria bassiana (white muscardine fungus) | Pathogen | Larvae/Pupae | ||||
Beauveria brongniartii (biocontrol: cockchafer larvae) | Pathogen | |||||
Brachymeria boranensis | Parasite | Hawaii | Brassica | |||
Brachymeria excarinata | Parasite | |||||
Brachymeria phya | Parasite | |||||
Brinckochrysa scelestes | Predator | |||||
Cataloccus aeneoviridis | Parasite | Ulmer et al. (2004), Mason et al. (2022) | ||||
Catolaccus cyanoideus | Parasite | Ulmer et al. (2004), Mason et al. (2022) | ||||
Cheiracanthium inclusum | Predator | |||||
Chlaenius micans | Predator | Larvae | ||||
Chrysopa pallens | Predator | |||||
Chrysoperla carnea (aphid lion) | Predator | |||||
Chrysoperla plorabunda | Predator | |||||
Cicindela chinensis | Predator | |||||
Clubiona japonicola | Predator | |||||
Coccinella septempunctata (seven-spot ladybird) | Predator | |||||
Coleosoma octomaculatum | Predator | |||||
Conura albifrons | Parasite | Arthropods|Pupae | ||||
Conura pseudofulvovariegata | Parasite | |||||
Cotesia marginiventris | Parasite | Larvae | Cape Verde | |||
Cotesia plutellae | Parasite | Larvae | Brassica; Brassicaceae; cabbages; cauliflowers; pineapples | |||
Cotesia ruficrus | Parasite | Larvae | ||||
Cotesia vestalis | Parasite | Larvae | Munir (2019), Haye et al. (2021), Mason et al. (2022) | Caribbean; Hawaii | Brassica | |
Diadegma cerophaga | Parasite | |||||
Diadegma eucerophaga | Parasite | Indonesia; Java; Bali; Sumatra; Sulawesi; Malaysia; Malaysia; Peninsular Malaysia; Taiwan | Brassicaceae; cabbages | |||
Diadegma fenestrale | Parasite | Larvae | Australia; India; Himachal Pradesh; New Zealand | Brassica: cabbages; cauliflowers | ||
Diadegma insulare | Parasite | Larvae | Honduras; North America | Brassica oleracea | ||
Diadegma leontiniae | Parasite | |||||
Diadegma niponica | Parasite | |||||
Diadegma rapi | Parasite | Larvae | Australia | Brassica | ||
Diadegma semiclausum | Parasite | Larvae | Australia; Cook Islands; Fiji; Hawaii; Indonesia; Malaysia; New Zealand; Papua New Guinea; Peninsular Malaysia; Philippines; South Africa; Taiwan; Tasmania | Brassica | ||
Diadegma xylostellae | Parasite | |||||
Diadromus collaris | Parasite | Pupae | Antigua; Australia; Barbados; Caribbean; Cook Islands; Dominica; Fiji; Grenada; Guam; Hawaii; Honduras; Jamaica; Malaysia; Peninsular Malaysia; New Zealand; Sri Lanka; St Kitts Nevis; St Lucia; St Vincent and the Grenadines; Tasmania; Thailand; Tonga; Trinidad and Tobago; USA; Hawaii; Zambia; Togo | Brassica; Brassicaceae; pineapples | ||
Diadromus pulchellus | Parasite | |||||
Diadromus subtilicornis | Parasite | Arthropods|Pupae | Haye et al. (2021), Mason et al. (2022) | cabbages | ||
Diadromus ustulatus | ||||||
Diaeretiella rapae | Parasite | Larvae | Sri Lanka | cabbages | ||
Dibrachys cavus | Parasite | |||||
Diglyphus isaea | Parasite | |||||
Diolcogaster claritibia | Parasite | Arthropods|Larvae | cabbages, canola | |||
Dolichogenidea appellator | Parasite | Larvae | ||||
Dolichogenidea litae | Parasite | Larvae | ||||
Dolichogenidea sicaria | Parasite | Larvae | ||||
Encarsia porteri | Parasite | Eggs | ||||
Erigonidium graminicolum | Predator | |||||
Erynia blunckii | Pathogen | |||||
Erynia radicans (insect pathogen) | Pathogen | Larvae/Pupae | ||||
Glabromicroplitis croceipes | Parasite | |||||
Granulosis virus (granuloviruses) | Pathogen | Larvae | ||||
Harmonia axyridis (harlequin ladybird) | Predator | |||||
Hippodamia convergens (lady beetle, convergent) | Predator | |||||
Hypomicrogaster semele | Parasite | Larvae | ||||
Isaria farinosa | Pathogen | |||||
Itoplectis maculator | Parasite | Arthropods|Pupae | ||||
Labidura riparia (riparian earwig) | Predator | |||||
Lycosa pseudoannulata | Predator | |||||
Macromalon orientale | Parasite | Barbados; Fiji; Hong Kong | Brassica | |||
Melanostoma fasciatum | Predator | |||||
Meloboris moldavica | Parasite | |||||
Meloboris xylostellae | Parasite | |||||
Mesochorus bilineatus | Parasite | Munir (2019), Mason et al. (2022) | ||||
Metarhizium anisopliae (green muscardine fungus) | Pathogen | Larvae | ||||
Metarhizium flavoviride (biocontrol of locusts) | Pathogen | |||||
Meteorus pulchricornis | Parasite | Larvae | ||||
Microplitis plutellae | Parasite | Larvae | Cape Verde; Ohio; Ontario | Brassica; cabbages; kale | ||
Misumenops tricuspidatus | Predator | |||||
Nabis kinbergii | Predator | |||||
Nomuraea rileyi (parasite of Anticarsia on soybean) | Pathogen | |||||
Nucleopolyhedrosis virus | Pathogen | |||||
Nythobia tibialis | Parasite | Australia | Brassica | |||
Oomyzus sokolowskii | Parasite | Larvae/Pupae | Barbados; Cape Verde; Fiji; Guam; Hong Kong; Jamaica; Peninsular Malaysia; Tobago; Trinidad; Trinidad and Tobago | Brassica | ||
Oomyzus sp. nr. sokolowskii | Parasite | Hawaii | Brassica | |||
Orius insidiosus | Predator | |||||
Paecilomyces fumosoroseus | Pathogen | Larvae | ||||
Paederus fuscipes | Predator | |||||
Pandora blunckii | Pathogen | |||||
Pardosa astrigera | Predator | |||||
Pardosa t-insignata | Predator | |||||
Pheidole | Predator | |||||
Philonthus wusthoffi | Predator | |||||
Pimpla nipponicus | Parasite | |||||
Pirata subpiraticus | Predator | |||||
Podisus nigrispinus | Predator | |||||
Propylea japonica | Predator | |||||
Protomicroplitis claritibia | Parasite | Larvae | ||||
Pteromalus semotus | Parasite | Braun et al. (2004), Mason et al. (2022) | ||||
Rhexidermus anomalus | Parasite | |||||
Spilochalcis albifrons | Parasite | USA; Ohio | kale | |||
Tetrastichus howardi | Parasite | |||||
Trichogramma achaeae | Parasite | Eggs | Cape Verde | cabbages | ||
Trichogramma chilonis | Parasite | Eggs | ||||
Trichogramma evanescens | Parasite | Eggs | Netherlands | |||
Trichogramma ostriniae | Parasite | Eggs | ||||
Trichogramma pretiosum | Parasite | Eggs | ||||
Trichogramma principium | Parasite | Eggs | ||||
Trichogrammatoidea armigera | Parasite | Eggs | ||||
Trichomalopsis dubia | Parasite | Arthropods|Pupae | ||||
Triclistus xylostellae | Parasite | |||||
Ummeliata insecticeps | Predator | |||||
Zoophthora radicans | Pathogen |
Impact Summary
Category | Impact |
---|---|
Economic/livelihood | Negative |
Impact
Throughout the world P. xylostella is considered the main insect pest of cruciferous vegetables (e.g. cabbages, broccoli and cauliflowers) and oilseed crops (e.g. canola and mustard) (Furlong et al., 2013). The estimated cost for controlling P. xylostella was US $1 billion annually in the early 1990s (Javier, 1992) but it is unclear how this was calculated. Between 1993 and 2009 the global area of cruciferous vegetable and oilseed crops increased by 39 and 59%, respectively. In 2009, an estimated 3.4 million hectares of cruciferous vegetables and over 31 million hectares of oilseed rape were cultivated worldwide (FAOSTAT, 2012). Such increased production of cruciferous crops has increased the pest status of P. xylostella, now costing the world economy an estimated US $4-5 billion annually (Zalucki et al., 2012).
Members of the plant family Brassicaceae occur in temperate and tropical climates throughout the world and P. xylostella occurs wherever crucifers are grown (Talekar and Shelton, 1993). The economic impact of P. xylostella is difficult to assess because it occurs in diverse small-scale and large-scale agricultural production areas, but a request (dated July 2000) sent to members of the Diamondback Moth Working Group was answered with some indications of its importance to specific regions.
The economic impact of P. xylostella can be evaluated by several methods. If one looks simply at the value of the crop, and states that a 'normal' population of P. xylostella would render each plant unmarketable, then one can calculate simply the value of the crop minus the cost of the applications and present that as the economic impact. However, there does not appear to be any reliable data on the total worldwide value of crucifers nor the losses incurred by P. xylostella. The lack of data on control costs is due to the large number of insecticides used against P. xylostella, their variable costs, the variable number of applications and their efficaciousness. This method would also be unreliable as some of these applications on crucifers may be targeted against other insect pests such as aphids or other Lepidoptera including the cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni, or the imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae. However, the data in this section give some indication of the importance of P. xylostella in various regions of the world.
China has the largest human population in the world and cruciferous vegetables make up an important part of the Chinese diet. The acreage of cabbages and cauliflower in 1999 in China was 1.2 million ha (FAO, 2000). P. xylostella is widespread in most provinces in China. There are five or six generations in Jilin Province in Northeastern China, and up to 20 generations in Guangdong Province in Southern China. It has been the most important insect pest of cruciferous vegetables, especially in Southern China and the Changjiang River Valley, in the past 20 years. If no sprays were applied for control of P. xylostella, the crop losses of the summer crop of cabbage in Jiangsu were 99% in 1992 and 80% in 1994, compared with the plots treated by insecticides (21-23 tons/ha.) (Zhao et al.,1996). The estimated control costs are ca US$100/ha for each crop for the peak periods (in April/May and September/October).
Kazuo Hirai (National Institute of Agrobiological Resources, Tsukuba, Japan, personal communication) notes that in Japan, P. xylostella is only one of the pests which growers have to treat for, the others being Mamestra brassicae, Pieris rapae and Plusia nigrisigna [Autographa nigrisigna]. Damage by these pests can be very serious, especially in the summer. When these crops are harvested before June or after November, a good yield is possible with less damage.
In the USA, the importance of P. xylostella is variable. In Texas, TX Liu (Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Weslaco, USA, personal communication) has suggested that 100% of cabbage and at least 20% of broccoli in Texas would be unmarketable. This translates to $40 million to $70 million for Texas cabbage and about $400,000 for broccoli based on the latest data from the Texas Agricultural Statistical Service (TASS, 2000). A similar situation also occurs in Florida, USA, where P. xylostella is a main pest of crucifers. In the more northerly latitudes of the USA, the situation is very different. Cathy Eastman (Entomology Department, University of Illinois, USA, personal communication) notes that cruciferous crops (cole crops, cruciferous greens and cruciferous root crops such as horseradish) are grown on about 30,000 acres in the Midwest (US Dept. Commerce, 1998). In her experience in Illinois, she estimates that >80% of the acreage will need to be treated at least once for the P. xylostella and P. rapae complex each season. It is difficult to separate out the importance of each species because they occur simultaneously. Depending on the season, most growers may treat 2-3 times for this complex. This is the same situation noted by AM Shelton (Department of Entomology, Cornell University, New York, USA, personal communication) in New York, although during hot, dry years he notes that P. xylostella will be a much more difficult problem and suggests that if no treatments were applied the approximately $50 million cabbage crop would be unmarketable. California is a main USA producer of broccoli where it was grown on 49,815 ha and had a farm gate value of ca $450 million in 1997. A severe infestation by P. xylostella in 1997 resulted in crop losses estimated at >$6 million (Shelton et al., 2000).
Mexico is a major producer of broccoli and related crucifers used for processing and export to the USA. Most production is located in the El Bajio region where >30,000 ha of broccoli are produced with a total farm gate value of >$63 million. The most abundant lepidopteran pest of cruciferous plants in Mexico is P. xylostella. It greatly reduces the yield and quality of the crop and accounts for the majority of insecticide use in crucifer production (Diaz-Gomez et al., 2000). If no sprays were applied for control of P. xylostella, it is reasonable to conclude that all plants would be unmarketable.
In Australia, Greg Baker (Entomology Unit, SARDI, Adelaide, Australia, personal communication) notes that P. xylostella attacks the 136,000 hectares of major Brassica vegetable crops and is considered the chief insect pest. Crop loss due to P. xylostella damage in an average year is estimated to be ca $AS 8 million and control costs $12 million. Another important crop attacked by P. xylostella is rape and in Australia this is grown on ca 1 million ha. The crop loss in rape due to P. xylostella is estimated to be ca $AS 3 million and the control cost ca $AS 6 million.
In Germany, Martin Hommes (Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture, Braunschweig, Germany, personal communication) notes that P. xylostella attacks cruciferous vegetables and field crops such as rape on a regular basis. These crops are grown throughout Germany with high concentrations of cabbage and rape in the northern parts of Germany. Cruciferous vegetables amount to one-third of the total field vegetable growing area in Germany. There are no comprehensive data on yield losses due to P. xylostella attack. Although P. xylostella is one of the three main lepidopterous pests in Germany and the larvae could be found in nearly every field, the damage in general will be low. In most years, the attack level by P. xylostella will be below an injury level and the pest will be controlled by spraying against the other two main lepidopterous pests, P. rapae and M. brassicae. In some years, particularly during hot, dry weather conditions, heavy attack and corresponding high yield losses can be observed. This situation is probably very similar in the Netherlands as well, where 8500 ha of cabbages and cauliflower are grown.
Other large producers of cabbages and cauliflower are India (530,000 ha), the Russian Federation (162,700 ha), South America (7000 ha) and the combined area of Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam which have a total of 78,655 ha (FAO, 2000). Other cruciferous crops are also attacked by P. xylostella but the value of these crops is unknown. Losses by P. xylostella in all these areas, especially in South-East Asia, can be very severe as P. xylostella has developed resistance to many insecticides (Furlong et al., 2013).
China has the largest human population in the world and cruciferous vegetables make up an important part of the Chinese diet. The acreage of cabbages and cauliflower in 1999 in China was 1.2 million ha (FAO, 2000). P. xylostella is widespread in most provinces in China. There are five or six generations in Jilin Province in Northeastern China, and up to 20 generations in Guangdong Province in Southern China. It has been the most important insect pest of cruciferous vegetables, especially in Southern China and the Changjiang River Valley, in the past 20 years. If no sprays were applied for control of P. xylostella, the crop losses of the summer crop of cabbage in Jiangsu were 99% in 1992 and 80% in 1994, compared with the plots treated by insecticides (21-23 tons/ha.) (Zhao et al.,1996). The estimated control costs are ca US$100/ha for each crop for the peak periods (in April/May and September/October).
Kazuo Hirai (National Institute of Agrobiological Resources, Tsukuba, Japan, personal communication) notes that in Japan, P. xylostella is only one of the pests which growers have to treat for, the others being Mamestra brassicae, Pieris rapae and Plusia nigrisigna [Autographa nigrisigna]. Damage by these pests can be very serious, especially in the summer. When these crops are harvested before June or after November, a good yield is possible with less damage.
In the USA, the importance of P. xylostella is variable. In Texas, TX Liu (Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Weslaco, USA, personal communication) has suggested that 100% of cabbage and at least 20% of broccoli in Texas would be unmarketable. This translates to $40 million to $70 million for Texas cabbage and about $400,000 for broccoli based on the latest data from the Texas Agricultural Statistical Service (TASS, 2000). A similar situation also occurs in Florida, USA, where P. xylostella is a main pest of crucifers. In the more northerly latitudes of the USA, the situation is very different. Cathy Eastman (Entomology Department, University of Illinois, USA, personal communication) notes that cruciferous crops (cole crops, cruciferous greens and cruciferous root crops such as horseradish) are grown on about 30,000 acres in the Midwest (US Dept. Commerce, 1998). In her experience in Illinois, she estimates that >80% of the acreage will need to be treated at least once for the P. xylostella and P. rapae complex each season. It is difficult to separate out the importance of each species because they occur simultaneously. Depending on the season, most growers may treat 2-3 times for this complex. This is the same situation noted by AM Shelton (Department of Entomology, Cornell University, New York, USA, personal communication) in New York, although during hot, dry years he notes that P. xylostella will be a much more difficult problem and suggests that if no treatments were applied the approximately $50 million cabbage crop would be unmarketable. California is a main USA producer of broccoli where it was grown on 49,815 ha and had a farm gate value of ca $450 million in 1997. A severe infestation by P. xylostella in 1997 resulted in crop losses estimated at >$6 million (Shelton et al., 2000).
Mexico is a major producer of broccoli and related crucifers used for processing and export to the USA. Most production is located in the El Bajio region where >30,000 ha of broccoli are produced with a total farm gate value of >$63 million. The most abundant lepidopteran pest of cruciferous plants in Mexico is P. xylostella. It greatly reduces the yield and quality of the crop and accounts for the majority of insecticide use in crucifer production (Diaz-Gomez et al., 2000). If no sprays were applied for control of P. xylostella, it is reasonable to conclude that all plants would be unmarketable.
In Australia, Greg Baker (Entomology Unit, SARDI, Adelaide, Australia, personal communication) notes that P. xylostella attacks the 136,000 hectares of major Brassica vegetable crops and is considered the chief insect pest. Crop loss due to P. xylostella damage in an average year is estimated to be ca $AS 8 million and control costs $12 million. Another important crop attacked by P. xylostella is rape and in Australia this is grown on ca 1 million ha. The crop loss in rape due to P. xylostella is estimated to be ca $AS 3 million and the control cost ca $AS 6 million.
In Germany, Martin Hommes (Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture, Braunschweig, Germany, personal communication) notes that P. xylostella attacks cruciferous vegetables and field crops such as rape on a regular basis. These crops are grown throughout Germany with high concentrations of cabbage and rape in the northern parts of Germany. Cruciferous vegetables amount to one-third of the total field vegetable growing area in Germany. There are no comprehensive data on yield losses due to P. xylostella attack. Although P. xylostella is one of the three main lepidopterous pests in Germany and the larvae could be found in nearly every field, the damage in general will be low. In most years, the attack level by P. xylostella will be below an injury level and the pest will be controlled by spraying against the other two main lepidopterous pests, P. rapae and M. brassicae. In some years, particularly during hot, dry weather conditions, heavy attack and corresponding high yield losses can be observed. This situation is probably very similar in the Netherlands as well, where 8500 ha of cabbages and cauliflower are grown.
Other large producers of cabbages and cauliflower are India (530,000 ha), the Russian Federation (162,700 ha), South America (7000 ha) and the combined area of Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam which have a total of 78,655 ha (FAO, 2000). Other cruciferous crops are also attacked by P. xylostella but the value of these crops is unknown. Losses by P. xylostella in all these areas, especially in South-East Asia, can be very severe as P. xylostella has developed resistance to many insecticides (Furlong et al., 2013).
Impact: Economic
Throughout the world P. xylostella is considered the main insect pest of cruciferous vegetables (e.g. cabbages, broccoli and cauliflowers) and oilseed crops (e.g. canola and mustard) (Furlong et al., 2013). The estimated cost for controlling P. xylostella was US $1 billion annually in the early 1990s (Javier, 1992) but it is unclear how this was calculated. Between 1993 and 2009 the global area of cruciferous vegetable and oilseed crops increased by 39 and 59%, respectively. In 2009, an estimated 3.4 million hectares of cruciferous vegetables and over 31 million hectares of oilseed rape were cultivated worldwide (FAO, 2012). Such increased production of cruciferous crops has increased the pest status of P. xylostella, now costing the world economy an estimated US $4-5 billion annually (Zalucki et al., 2012), making it the most expensive insect pest (Bradshaw et al., 2016).
Members of the plant family Brassicaceae occur in temperate and tropical climates throughout the world and P. xylostella occurs wherever crucifers are grown (Talekar and Shelton, 1993). The economic impact of P. xylostella is difficult to assess because it occurs in diverse small-scale and large-scale agricultural production areas, but a request (dated July 2000) sent to members of the Diamondback Moth Working Group was answered with some indications of its importance to specific regions.
The economic impact of P. xylostella can be evaluated by several methods. If one looks simply at the value of the crop, and states that a 'normal' population of P. xylostella would render each plant unmarketable, then one can calculate simply the value of the crop minus the cost of the applications and present that as the economic impact. However, there does not appear to be any reliable data on the total worldwide value of crucifers nor the losses incurred by P. xylostella. The lack of data on control costs is due to the large number of insecticides used against P. xylostella, their variable costs, the variable number of applications and their efficaciousness. This method would also be unreliable as some of these applications on crucifers may be targeted against other insect pests such as aphids or other Lepidoptera including the cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni, or the imported cabbageworm, Pieris rapae. However, the data in this section give some indication of the importance of P. xylostella in various regions of the world.
China has the largest human population in the world and cruciferous vegetables make up an important part of the Chinese diet. The acreage of cabbages and cauliflower in 1999 in China was 1.2 million ha (FAO, 2000). P. xylostella is widespread in most provinces in China. There are five or six generations in Jilin Province in northeastern China, and up to 20 generations in Guangdong Province in southern China. It has been the most important insect pest of cruciferous vegetables, especially in southern China and the Changjiang River Valley, in the past 20 years. If no sprays were applied for control of P. xylostella, the crop losses of the summer crop of cabbage in Jiangsu were 99% in 1992 and 80% in 1994, compared with the plots treated by insecticides (21-23 tons/ha.) (Zhao et al.,1996). The estimated control costs are ca US$100/ha for each crop for the peak periods (in April/May and September/October).
Kazuo Hirai (National Institute of Agrobiological Resources, Tsukuba, Japan, personal communication) notes that in Japan, P. xylostella is only one of the pests which growers have to treat for, the others being Mamestra brassicae, P. rapae and Plusia nigrisigna [Autographa nigrisigna]. Damage by these pests can be very serious, especially in the summer. When these crops are harvested before June or after November, a good yield is possible with less damage.
In the USA, the importance of P. xylostella is variable. In Texas, TX Liu (Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Weslaco, USA, personal communication) has suggested that 100% of cabbage and at least 20% of broccoli in Texas would be unmarketable. This translates to $40 million to $70 million for Texas cabbage and about $400,000 for broccoli based on the latest data from the Texas Agricultural Statistical Service (TASS, 2000). A similar situation also occurs in Florida, USA, where P. xylostella is a main pest of crucifers. In the more northerly latitudes of the USA, the situation is very different. Cathy Eastman (Entomology Department, University of Illinois, USA, personal communication) notes that cruciferous crops (cole crops, cruciferous greens and cruciferous root crops such as horseradish) are grown on about 30,000 acres in the Midwest (US Dept. Commerce, 1998). In her experience in Illinois, she estimates that >80% of the acreage will need to be treated at least once for the P. xylostella and P. rapae complex each season. It is difficult to separate out the importance of each species because they occur simultaneously. Depending on the season, most growers may treat 2-3 times for this complex. This is the same situation noted by AM Shelton (Department of Entomology, Cornell University, New York, USA, personal communication) in New York, although during hot, dry years he notes that P. xylostella will be a much more difficult problem and suggests that if no treatments were applied the approximately $50 million cabbage crop would be unmarketable. California is a main USA producer of broccoli where it was grown on 49,815 ha and had a farm gate value of ca $450 million in 1997. A severe infestation by P. xylostella in 1997 resulted in crop losses estimated at >$6 million (Shelton et al., 2000).
Mexico is a major producer of broccoli and related crucifers used for processing and export to the USA. Most production is located in the El Bajio region where >30,000 ha of broccoli are produced with a total farm gate value of >$63 million. The most abundant lepidopteran pest of cruciferous plants in Mexico is P. xylostella. It greatly reduces the yield and quality of the crop and accounts for the majority of insecticide use in crucifer production (Díaz -Gomez et al., 2000). If no sprays were applied for control of P. xylostella, it is reasonable to conclude that all plants would be unmarketable.
In Australia, Greg Baker (Entomology Unit, SARDI, Adelaide, Australia, personal communication) notes that P. xylostella attacks the 136,000 hectares of major Brassica vegetable crops and is considered the chief insect pest. Crop loss due to P. xylostella damage in an average year is estimated to be ca $AS 8 million and control costs $12 million. Another important crop attacked by P. xylostella is rape and in Australia this is grown on ca 1 million ha. The crop loss in rape due to P. xylostella is estimated to be ca $AS 3 million and the control cost ca $AS 6 million.
In Germany, Martin Hommes (Institute for Plant Protection in Horticulture, Braunschweig, Germany, personal communication) notes that P. xylostella attacks cruciferous vegetables and field crops such as rape on a regular basis. These crops are grown throughout Germany with high concentrations of cabbage and rape in the northern parts of Germany. Cruciferous vegetables amount to one-third of the total field vegetable-growing area in Germany. There are no comprehensive data on yield losses due to P. xylostella attack. Although P. xylostella is one of the three main lepidopterous pests in Germany and the larvae could be found in nearly every field, the damage in general will be low. In most years, the attack level by P. xylostella will be below an injury level and the pest will be controlled by spraying against the other two main lepidopterous pests, P. rapae and M. brassicae. In some years, particularly during hot, dry weather conditions, heavy attack and corresponding high yield losses can be observed. This situation is probably very similar in the Netherlands as well, where 8500 ha of cabbages and cauliflower are grown.
Other large producers of cabbages and cauliflower are India (530,000 ha), Russia (162,700 ha), South America (7000 ha) and the combined area of Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam which have a total of 78,655 ha (FAO, 2000). Other cruciferous crops are also attacked by P. xylostella but the value of these crops is unknown. Losses by P. xylostella in all these areas, especially in South East Asia, can be very severe as P. xylostella has developed resistance to many insecticides (Furlong et al., 2013).
Canada is a major producer of canola which is grown on >8.4 million ha annually, mainly on the Canadian prairies (Canola Council of Canada, 2021). Periodic infestations of diamondback moth occur every 2-3 years when moths arrive from southern North America and in years when arrival is early in the season significant economic losses occur (Munir et al., 2013). For example, the P. xylostella outbreak in 1995 resulted in economic losses equivalent to approximately US$60 to >70.0 million in 2021 (https://www.usinflationcalculator.com/). The last major outbreak in Canada occurred in 2017 (Epp, 2018). Australia and South Africa are major producers of canola that experience economically damaging outbreaks of P. xylostella (Furlong et al., 2008b; Mosiane et al., 2003).
Impact: Environmental
The environmental impact of P. xylostella can be direct and indirect, the latter being via the use of insecticides to control this pest. However, there are few published studies that have documented these impacts.
Impact on Habitats
Plutella xylostella feeds on a wide variety of Brassicaceae plant species (Philips et al., 2014), particularly during times of the year (e.g. spring) when monocultures of favoured crops are not available (Talekar and Shelton, 1993). Although many of these are non-native and considered to be agricultural weeds (e.g. yellow rocket, Barbarea vulgaris; shepherd’s purse, Capsella bursa-pastoris; pepperweed, Lepidium spp.; and wild mustards, Brassica spp.) and feeding by P. xylostella would be considered beneficial, native Brassicaceae and associated fauna could be negatively affected. There are 634 Brassicaceae native to North America (Al-Shehbaz, 2021) and among these there are rare or endangered species. One example is the erect-fruit wintercress (Barbarea orthoceras), which is rare in eastern North America and is of conservation concern in all jurisdictions of occurrence east of Ontario (Chapman et al., 2019). Feeding by P. xylostella could lead to its removal and modify habitats such as grasslands, forests, boggy ground and railroad embankments where it is present. There is a need to examine the habitat impacts of feeding by P. xylostella on native Brassicaceae.
Impact on Biodiversity
The impact of P. xylostella on biodiversity has been little studied. However, the presence of P. xylostella can reduce biodiversity through feeding on host plants of native insects. For example, several native weevil species (Ceutorhynchus spp.) feed on seeds in the siliques or stems of native and introduced Brassicaceae (Mason et al., 2014) that may also serve as food sources for P. xylostella (e.g. Rorippa palustris, Sinapis arvensis). Damage to host plants containing native weevils could result in loss of individuals, reducing weevil and their associated natural enemy biodiversity.
Indirectly, the presence of P. xylostella leads to use of broad-spectrum pesticides which destroy non-target species, creating simplified ecosystems and reducing beneficial species.
Impact: Social
The impact of P. xylostella can include a number of social factors that may be linked. While management costs and lost production are estimated to be US$4-US$5 billion annually (Zalucki et al., 2012), the effects on livelihoods and health effects of pesticide use are unknown. As suggested by Bradshaw et al. (2016) for invasive insects in general there is a lack of dedicated studies, especially for reproducible goods and service estimates, implying that global costs are grossly underestimated.
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Highly mobile locally
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Has high genetic variability
Impact outcomes
Altered trophic level
Host damage
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Impact mechanisms
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Rapid growth
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Plutella xylostella provides no economic, social or environmental benefit to agriculture, although infestations result in increased sales of insecticides for their control.
Uses List
General > Laboratory use
General > Research model
Detection and Inspection
Colour: when disturbed, tiny adults fly from plant to plant. When at rest, three or four diamond-shaped areas formed by two forewings, are visible on the dorsal surface. Pale green larvae with pale green to brown head capsules or brown pupae covered in white silken cocoons are present on plant parts damaged by P. xylostella.
Size: adult 10-12 mm long, fully-grown larva 10 mm long, pupa 5-6 mm long.
Behaviour: adults fly when disturbed. Larvae curl up when disturbed, or drop from the foliage to the ground.
Traps: adults are attracted to light traps. Adult males are attracted to sex pheromone which consists of three chemicals: (Z)-11-hexadecenal, (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate and (Z)-11-hexadecenyl alcohol (Chow et al., 1978). The yellow sticky traps can also be used to monitor populations in the field (Sivapragasam and Saito, 1986).
Food: Major host plants associated with the family Brassicaceae with a few host plants in the family Capparidaceae (Idris, 1998; Tanaka et al., 1999).
Scouting Techniques in Oilseed rape
The count method, although often laborious, is currently the most accurate method of estimating P. xylostella population densities in oilseed rape. It involves performing counts of larvae in several locations throughout the field and determining the average population per unit area. Remove plants in an area of 0.1 m2, beat them onto a clean surface and count the number of larvae dislodged from the plants. Scout at least five locations per field and monitor crops at least twice weekly (Canola Council of Canada, 2014).
The action threshold in Canadian oilseed rape crops is 20-30 larvae/0.1 m2 at the advanced pod stage. This works out to approximately two to three larvae/plant, given the plant population is about 100 plants/m2 (Canola Council of Canada, 2014).
Sweep net sampling and trapping (e.g. sticky, pheromone and bowl traps) can be used to detect the presence and general abundance of P. xylostella in the field, but these tools alone may not provide a reliable estimate of larval density. Nevertheless, high counts in sweep sampling and trapping can prompt growers to use the more accurate 'count method' (Sarfraz et al., 2010; Canola Council of Canada, 2014).
In regions such as Canada where P. xylostella infestations are associated with annual migrations, pheromone traps coupled with wind trajectory and development models are useful tools to determine the size and timing of the moth flight.
Scouting Technique in Brassica Vegetables
In Brassica vegetable crops, the 'percent infested' threshold scouting technique is more efficient in detecting damaging pest populations as it avoids the need to remove plants and count pests and is relatively easy for growers to use (Berry, 2000). This technique is successfully used to scout several other insect and mite pests in commercial crops.
Various types of traps (e.g. sticky, pheromone, pitfall and bowl traps) can also be used to detect the presence and relative abundance of P. xylostella in the field.
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Introduction
At present, the mainstay of control in all tropical to subtropical developing countries (where small farms dominate vegetable production), is the frequent use of insecticides. In most of these countries, insecticides, all of which are imported from developed countries, are readily available at a reasonable cost. In some countries, pesticides are subsidized. These factors lead to overuse and complete dependence on insecticides to control P. xylostella. In tropical countries where crucifers are grown throughout the year, P. xylostella can have up to 20 generations per year. This situation leads to the rapid build-up of insecticide resistance. To overcome resistance, farmers often increase doses of insecticide, use mixtures of several chemicals and spray more often, sometimes once every 2 days. These high levels of use have caused P. xylostella to become resistant to practically all insecticides in many countries.
Cultural Control (Field Management)
Some of the classical control measures that have been tried with some success are intercropping, use of sprinkler irrigation, trap cropping, rotation and clean cultivation.
Intercropping
Though intercropping is a normal cultivation practice in the tropics it is not presently used for the management of P. xylostella, but rather for horticultural and economic reasons. The earliest successes occurred in Russia where intercropping cabbage with tomato reduced damage to cabbage by several pests (including P. xylostella) (Vostrikov, 1915). However, this practice had only limited success in India (Chelliah and Srinivasan, 1986), the Philippines (Magallona, 1986) and Taiwan (AVRDC, 1987). In Taiwan none of the 54 crops tested for their usefulness in intercropping had any significant impact on the population of P. xylostella on cabbage.
Trials carried out in India showed that planting one row of late season cauliflower with one row of main season tomato significantly reduced the incidence of P. xylostella when the cauliflower was planted 30 days after tomato (Kandoria et al., 1999). Studies on the effects of intraplot mixtures of toxic (genetically engineered with Bacillus thuringiensis) and non-toxic collard (Brassica oleracea var. acephala [Brassica oleracea var. viridis]) plants on the population dynamics of P. xylostella and its natural enemies suggested that intrafield mixtures could decrease the density of a target pest such as the diamondback moth, while not adversely affecting natural enemies (Riggin-Bucci and Gould, 1997).
Sprinkler irrigation
Except for the first instar, all P. xylostella larvae and pupae are exposed on the leaf surface and are influenced by various abiotic factors. Several reports indicate that rainfall is an important mortality factor for P. xylostella (Gray, 1915; Harcourt, 1963; Talekar and Lee, 1985) and thus this pest is serious only during the dry season. Overhead irrigation has been shown to reduce P. xylostella injury to cabbage (Talekar et al., 1986) and watercress (Nakahara et al., 1986). The water droplets are believed to drown or physically dislodge the pest from the plant surface, causing a reduction in their numbers. This operation at dusk also reduced mating-related flight activity and presumably oviposition. Using sprinkler irrigation to control this pest in crops other than watercress, however, is not practical on a commercial farm because of the high cost and probable increase of diseases such as black rot and downy mildew.
Trap cropping
Before the advent of modern organic insecticides, a common practice was to plant strips of an economically less important plant highly preferred by P. xylostella within a commercial crucifer field. The preferred crops, primarily white mustard (Brassica hirta [Sinapis alba]) or Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) attracted P. xylostella adults, which spared the commercial crop such as cabbage, Brussels sprouts and others from its attack (Kanervo, 1932; Ghesquiere, 1939). Now, because of insecticide resistance problems, trap cropping is becoming a more realistic alternative, especially in developing countries. In India when one row of mustard was alternated with 15-20 rows of cabbage, P. xylostella colonized the mustard and spared the main crop (Srinivasan and Krishna Moorthy, 1992). In order to trap most P. xylostella adults in a field, healthy growing mustard in the vegetative stage must be available throughout the cabbage-growing period. This technique also spares cabbage from attack by Crocidolomia binotalis [Crocidolomia pavonana]. Studies in Malaysia (Sivapragasam and Loke, 1997), Hawaii (Luther et al., 1996) and South Africa (Charleston and Kfir, 2000) also suggested that Indian mustard showed potential as a trap crop for P. xylostella. However, Indian mustard may not provide specific advantages to cabbage cultivation if the economics of cultivating the former is considered (Sivapragasam and Loke, 1997; Subrahmanyam, 1998). Conflicting results for Indian mustard were obtained in Indonesia (Omoy et al., 1995; Prabaningrum and Sastrosiswojo, 1995).
Crucifers with a glossy phylloplane are not only attractive for P. xylostella oviposition, but the glossy trait also negatively affects survival and development suggesting that selected glossy cultivars have potential usefulness as trap crops in Brassica vegetable fields. Glossy yellow rocket Barbarea vulgaris subsp. arcuata is a potential candidate for dead-end trap cropping. P. xylostella ovipositional preference was much greater on glossy yellow rocket than on cabbage and oilseed rape but larvae failed to survive on it (Shelton and Nault, 2004). This discovery initiated new interest in trap cropping but there remain questions to be addressed (e.g. competition with the main crop, placement method in the field, weed seed bank in soils, etc.) before yellow rocket could be recommended for extensive field use (Sarfraz et al., 2006).
Rotation and clean cultivation
Crop rotation is rarely practised for control of P. xylostella in intensive vegetable-growing areas of the tropics and subtropics because of the high prices that crucifer vegetables fetch. However, because continuous planting of crucifers allows continuous generations of the pest, which leads to frequent use of insecticides and development of pesticide resistance, crop rotation may become necessary. If crop rotation is followed by all farmers in a locality simultaneously, it will lead to a crucifer-free period that disrupts the pest's breeding cycle and may help control the pest in the crop following the rotation crop.
Clean cultivation can be an important factor in the management of P. xylostella. Planting seedling beds away from production fields, and ploughing down crop residues in seedling beds and production fields, are efficient and easy management practices. Where seedlings are grown in the greenhouse, prevention of infestations by immigrating adults can be accomplished through the use of insect-proof screens.
Tests to determine how undersowing Brassica crops with subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) affected host-plant selection by some pests including P. xylostella indicated that in all cases, 40-90% fewer insect pest stages were found on plants in clover than on those in bare soil (Kienegger et al., 1996). Field experiments comparing two different undersown crops, strawberry clover (Trifolium fragiferum cv. Palestine) and spurrey (Spergula arvensis), revealed that populations of P. xylostella larvae were not as high as in monocropped plots (Theunissen and Schelling, 1996) but the quality of cabbages from the undersown plots was much better. Spurrey is interesting because it is able to suppress pest populations, notably larvae of P. xylostella and thrips, but it could be difficult to integrate in existing cropping practices (Theunissen and Schelling, 1996).
Row Cover
The use of physical barriers has some potential to reduce damage by P. xylostella. A study in Brazil showed that kale crops in tunnels covered by organza and agrotextile fabric, which have tightly woven meshes, make it difficult for P. xylostella adults to enter and locate plants for oviposition (Ponce et al., 2021).
Host-Plant Resistance
Two types of resistance, normal-bloom cabbage and glossy-leaf cabbage, have been identified by American scientists (Dickson et al., 1990). Hybrid lines of cabbage and cauliflower bred from these resistance sources showing good level of resistance to P. xylostella are available. However, because of the thick leaves in the normal-bloom type and dark green glossy leaves in other lines, these hybrids have not been popular with consumers and thus they are not yet exploited commercially. Factors inducing resistance vary. Ganeshan and Narayanasamy (1997) suggested that high contents of protein, orthodihydroxy phenols and low quantities of sugar (reducing and non-reducing) were factors for resistance in three cauliflower lines, whereas Ramachandran et al. (1998a) suggested differing leaf characteristics.
Brassicaceous species differ in their resistance as hosts for P. xylostella. Females preferred to lay eggs on Sinapis alba and Brassica rapa [Brassica campestris], but development times of larvae and pupae were most rapid on B. juncea and S. alba (Sarfraz et al., 2007). Development was also influenced by varieties within species. Although survival did not vary for P. xylostella reared from egg to pupa on the B. napus var. Q2, Liberty and Conquest, females deposited more eggs on Liberty than on Q2 or Conquest. Development of females from larva to prepupa was faster on Liberty and Conquest than on Q2 (Sarfraz et al., 2007).
Host-plant resistance work also revolves around incorporating one or more novel pesticide genes into oilseed rape and Brassica vegetables. Transgenic canola carrying the cry1Ac gene was developed and tested for P. xylostella control in field and glasshouse trials in the USA (Ramachandran et al., 1998b) but no such transgenic crops are registered yet. There is increasing interest in getting this type of resistance registered in Australia (Canola Council of Canada, 2014). Bt-cabbage and Bt-cauliflower plants were also developed and tested against P. xylostella, but due to regulatory and liability issues the transgenic vegetables were not field released and the project ceased in 2010 (Russell et al., 2011).
Sex Pheromone
A sex pheromone consisting of three chemical components: (Z)-11-hexadecenal, (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate and (Z)-11-hexadecenyl alcohol is now available commercially. This pheromone attracts male adults and suitable traps are used to kill the moths attracted to the pheromone. Extensive studies have already determined the optimal proportion and leading of the pheromone components, effective distance and longevity (Chow et al., 1978; Chisholm et al., 1983; Lee et al., 1995) in order to use the pheromone more effectively. This pheromone has been used for monitoring P. xylostella populations in the field (Baker et al., 1982). During the past 5 years, Japanese scientists have succeeded in achieving mating disruption in cabbage fields using high concentrations of the pheromone (Ohno et al., 1992). A 1:1 mixture of (Z)-11-hexadecenal and (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate known as 'Konaga-Con' is now commercially available in Japan. Collaborative multilocation studies in Japan have shown promising results (Ohbayashi et al., 1992), but 'Konaga-Con' use is still not cost effective. Experiments to evaluate the efficacy of a blend of pheromones to disrupt mating of diamondback moth and cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni) when dispensed simultaneously from Yoto-con-S R 'rope' dispensers showed some promise in suppressing numbers of P. xylostella larvae to below predetermined threshold levels (Mitchell et al., 1997).
Biological Control
This involves both classical biological control and the conservation of endemic natural enemies. In general, the former is emphasized because P. xylostella is an introduced pest in most countries. Introduction of exotic natural enemies to control pest insects has been practised for decades. This approach has considerable promise for the control of P. xylostella; however, it has been practised only sporadically over the past 50 years. Widespread and often indiscriminate use of insecticides has frustrated recent efforts and delayed the establishment of parasites and their beneficial effects.
In one of the earliest parasite introductions, Diadegma semiclausum and Diadromus collaris were introduced into New Zealand from England (Hardy, 1938; Thomas and Ferguson, 1989). These introductions continue to suppress P. xylostella populations until now, and the challenge today is to incorporate this natural control into a commercial IPM.
In Australia, prior to the introduction of effective exotic parasites, P. xylostella caused serious damage (Wilson, 1960). Among the introduced parasitoids, D. semiclausum became established throughout Australia, including Tasmania. D. collaris was established principally in Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania and Cotesia plutellae [Cotesia vestalis] in Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Queensland. These introductions resulted in heavy parasitism of C. vestalis (72-90%) and marked reduction in damage to crucifers (Wilson, 1960; Goodwin, 1979; Hamilton, 1979).
In the early 1950s, D. semiclausum was introduced from New Zealand into Indonesia's crucifer-growing areas in the highlands of Java (Vos, 1953) where it became established. However, because of over-use of insecticides, the beneficial effects of this parasite in the control of P. xylostella in the field were not realized until the mid-1980s (Sastrosiswojo and Sastrodihardjo, 1986). With substitution of chemical pesticides by B. thuringiensis in the early 1980s, the parasite proliferated. This parasite has now been introduced from Java to the highlands of other islands in Indonesia.
In the Cameron Highlands of Malaysia, where crucifers are grown throughout the year, P. xylostella was a serious pest. However, in 1977-1978, Malaysian entomologists introduced D. semiclausum, and D. collaris. Although these parasites became established soon after introduction it was not until the late 1980s when chemical insecticides were substituted by B. thuringiensis that the impact of these parasitoids was fully realized. The combined parasitism has drastically reduced the need for insecticide applications and since then areas of cabbage production are increasing (Ooi, 1992).
In Taiwan, P. xylostella has been a serious pest since the 1960s. C. vestalis, reported to parasitize P. xylostella since 1972, could not give adequate control, so D. semiclausum was imported from Indonesia. This parasite failed to get established in lowlands but in highlands it was established within the same season (AVRDC, 1988). This cool-temperature parasite now occurs throughout the highland areas of Central Taiwan and provides substantial savings in P. xylostella control. Studies indicated a temperature range of 20-30°C is optimum for parasitization by C. vestalis and 15-25°C for D. semiclausum (Talekar and Yang, 1991). Parasitism by D. semiclausum drops rapidly at temperatures approaching 30°C.
In the Philippines, a single release of D. semiclausum in 1989 at the beginning of the season resulted in 64% parasitization of P. xylostella, and an 80-90% drop in pesticide use (Poelking, 1992). Ofelia (1997) reported that the establishment of D. semiclausum in cabbage achieved economical effective control of P. xylostella providing substantial savings for farmers per hectare in a cropping season. In discussing natural enemies, the important role of predators in the management of P. xylostella should also be emphasized as has been suggested in various studies based on population dynamics and the indirect effects of insecticides (Sivapragasam et al., 1988).
There has been significant recent interest in the use of insect pathogens such as Beauveria bassiana (Shelton et al., 1998; Ma et al., 1999; Yoon et al., 1999), Metarhizium anisopliae (Amiri et al., 1999), Zoophthora radicans (Furlong and Pell, 1997a), baculoviruses (Kadir et al., 1999; Kariuki and McIntosh, 1999) and entomopathogenic nematodes (Baur et al., 1998; Yang et al., 1999) as potential biological control agents of P. xylostella. One of the major limiting factors in the use of entomopathogens in the management of P. xylostella is the efficiency of their delivery systems and studies have been undertaken to try and improve this aspect to enable fuller exploitation of these natural enemies (Wright and Mason, 1997; Asokan, 1999; Ebert et al., 1999; Mason et al., 1999). Environmental factors are also important for the effectiveness of these pathogens (e.g. Z. radicans, Furlong and Pell, 1997a), as is their integration with other control measures such as sex pheromones (Furlong and Pell, 1997b). Scientists at IITA, Benin, have successfully developed and field tested the use of a biopesticide based on B. bassiana in cabbage farms in West Africa (IITA, 2009).
Plant-based Extracts
A number of plant-based extracts have been studied to deter feeding by P. xylostella. Jimsonweed extracts showed potential as an effective pesticide and oviposition deterrent against P. xylostella (Karimzadeh and Rabiei, 2020). Oils extracted from Tephrosia purpurea, Ricinus communis (castor bean), Thevetia neriifolia [Cascabela thevetia] (yellow oleander, lucky nut) and Anacardium occidentale (cashew) were found to be effective at killing P. xylostella larvae (Sodontji et al., 2020).
Chemical Control
Because P. xylostella larvae feed on cruciferous vegetables, which usually have high cosmetic standards, effective control is necessary. Historically, the mainstay of control has been the use of synthetic insecticides. General use patterns of insecticides vary widely over geographic locations and decades. The driving forces behind these changing patterns are the development of new, more effective insecticides and lost usefulness of older chemicals because of resistance. The most dramatic patterns have occurred in South East Asia where P. xylostella is especially serious. The best example of the rapid change in use patterns is illustrated by Rushtapakornchai and Vattanatangum (1986), who compiled a list of screening results in Thailand from 1965 to 1984. In 1976, permethrin was introduced and provided excellent control in the central region, but provided only fair control 2 years later. In the early 1980s, insect growth regulators were introduced. Growth regulators, like triflumuron, provided good control in 1982 but poor control by 1984. B. thuringiensis was introduced in early 1970s and provided fair-to-good control when first introduced. Because of lack of effective control when used alone, B. thuringiensis has been used primarily in IPM programmes that use thresholds and conserve natural enemies.
Similar patterns have also been documented in other parts of the world such as Taiwan (Sun, 1992), Japan (Hama, 1992), Malaysia (Syed, 1992), USA (Magaro and Edelson, 1990; Leibee and Savage, 1992; Plapp et al., 1992) Costa Rica (Carazo et al., 1999; Cartin et al., 1999), Central America (Andrews et al., 1992), Chile (Rosa et al., 1997), New Zealand (Cameron and Walker, 1998), India (Raju, 1996) and South Australia (Baker and Kovaliski, 1999). Because of the magnitude of the P. xylostella problem and the worldwide importance of cruciferous vegetables, new potential control agents such as genetically improved strains of B. thuringiensis, neem, macrocyclic lactones, baculoviruses and fungi are being tested. However, as with all previously used methods, the long-term effectiveness of these agents remains to be seen.
Plutella xylostella is among the 'leaders' of the most difficult pests to control. It was the first insect to develop resistance in the field to the bacterial insecticide, B. thuringiensis (Kirsch and Schmutterer, 1988; Tabashnik et al., 1990). Now it has shown resistance to almost every insecticide applied in the field (Sarfraz and Keddie, 2005; Ridland and Endersby, 2011) including new insecticide groups such as diamide (Gong et al., 2014). This clearly points to the need for the development and implementation of comprehensive insecticide resistance management (IRM) programmes to conserve efficacy of viable insecticides.
An IRM programme, sponsored by the Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) has been implemented in the Hawaiian Archipelago, to conserve spinosad, as insect populations developed resistance following continuous exposure. With the help of growers and extension workers, spinosad was banned and replaced with rotations of emamectin benzoate and indoxacarb until pest populations recovered susceptibility (Mau and Gusukuma-Minuto, 2004). In Australia, a national insecticide rotation programme for IRM on cruciferous crops includes six different mode-of-action (MoA) chemical classes, including three new diamide insecticides (Baker, 2011). The US Environmental Protection Agency and the Pest Management Regulatory Agency of Canada have also been developing a voluntary IRM programme based on IRAC-MoA classification scheme.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
For the past 30 years, farmers have depended almost exclusively on insecticides to control P. xylostella, but resistance to presently available insecticides and lack of new insecticides has stimulated research on alternative control measures. In some cases, these alternatives are essentially the same ones that were discarded in favour of synthetic insecticides. Since parasites play such an important role in checking P. xylostella population growth, introduction and conservation of parasites will be basic to any sustainable IPM programme. To implement IPM, farmers must coordinate their efforts because the practices of one farmer influence those of his or her neighbour. This applies to the development of IRM or the introduction and conservation of natural enemies. Such coordination will be most needed in small-scale agriculture where farms are often smaller than 0.1 ha and where many farms in an area are owned by different growers. An example of a successful coordinated effort was the establishment of D. semiclausum in the highlands of Indonesia, Malaysia, Taiwan and the Philippines and the use of B. thuringiensis (Sastrosiswojo and Sastrodihardjo, 1986; Ooi and Lim, 1989; Poelking, 1992; Talekar, 1992). An IPM programme funded by the Asian Development Bank covers ten countries in South and South East Asia where, if not already present, D. semiclausum was introduced in the highlands and C. vestalis in the lowlands (Eusebio and Rejesus, 1997; Loke et al., 1997). One of the most successful IPM programmes is the one developed in the Bajio region of Mexico where about 15,000 crucifers are grown annually. This programme was initiated in 1987 after a complete control failure of P. xylostella despite an average of nine applications of synthetic insecticides. The present IPM programme relies on scouting thresholds, crucifer-free periods and the judicious use of B. thuringiensis, and has resulted in over 50% fewer insecticide sprays (Talekar and Shelton, 1993).
In Jamaica, plant resistance complemented with B. thuringiensis was found to be suitable for IPM of cabbage looper, T. ni, and P. xylostella (Ivey and Johnson, 1998). In Singapore, Ng et al. (1997) used the following IPM strategies: physical exclusion of the moth using protected structures with translucent netting; monitoring of larval and adult moth populations using scouting and trapping methods to assess economic threshold limits for spraying; the reduction of pest populations below economic thresholds using the selective, parasite-safe biopesticide, B. thuringiensis; quick suppression of economically damaging pest populations with an effective chemical insecticide; and biological control of pest populations with the larval parasite C. vestalis. In the Philippines, C. vestalis was used as the core component of an IPM strategy supplemented with microbial insecticide B. thuringiensis subsp. aizawai [Bacillus thuringiensis serovar. aizawai], Bta, based on an economic threshold level of two larvae/plant at 1-4 weeks after transplanting and five larvae/plant at 5-10 weeks after transplanting. This strategy was superior to Farmers' Control Practice (FCP) for control of the diamondback moth on cabbage in the field. The level of control in the FCP-managed field, sprayed 4-8 times with the pyrethroid insecticide, fenvalerate, was very low. Yield increase in the IPM-managed field was 48% greater than in the FCP field and 123% greater than in the untreated control, resulting in a net income 87% higher than from the FCP (Morallo Rejesus et al., 1996). Encouraging results were also obtained by Eusebio and Rejesus (1997) under the KASAKALIKASAN or National IPM Program. Verkerk and Wright (1996) suggested that a multitrophic approach to research may assist in the development of more sustainable methods for the management of P. xylostella, and overcome some of the problems inherent in insecticide-intensive methods. Roush (1997) proposed that radically different approaches should be considered for the management of P. xylostella and its resistance including mandatory crucifer-free periods, area-wide insecticide rotation programmes, the avoidance of pesticide mixtures and Bt spray formulations containing multiple toxins, the avoidance of persistent insecticide formulations, registration of insecticides that show low toxicity to natural enemies (e.g. spinosads) (Naish et al., 1997), the development of novel control tactics such as pheromone disruption and the use of transgenic plants with multiple toxins 'pyramided' within the same variety. He suggested that pyramided plants with effective toxin expression, coupled with small refuge of non-transgenic plants, could be the most effective resistance strategy.
In areas where other pests besides P. xylostella are important, one must consider their management as well. For example, Crocidolomia binotalis [Crocidolomia pavonana] is a major pest of crucifers in the highland of Indonesia, and presently marketed strains of B. thuringiensis are not effective against it. Growers who have used synthetic insecticides routinely against C. pavonana have caused occasional flare-ups of P. xylostella because of insecticide-induced mortality of D. semiclausum (Sastrosiswojo and Setiawati, 1992). Promotion of Indian mustard (B. juncea) as a trap crop to control C. pavonana will help considerably in further reduction in insecticide use. The recently proposed Plutella/Crocidolomia management programme for cabbage has been successful in Indonesia (Shepard and Schellhorn, 1997).
Because of the magnitude of control failures of P. xylostella, as well as pressure to reduce insecticide inputs in small- and large-scale agriculture, both systems must be open to alternatives to broad-spectrum insecticides. Traditionally, such ideas as trap cropping, adult trapping, and pheromone disruption were considered more amenable to small-scale agriculture, but this is no longer true. Researchers in India have demonstrated the benefits of using Indian mustard trap crop to attract P. xylostella and C. pavonana away from principal crops (Srinivasan and Krishna Moorthy, 1992), thus reducing the need for insecticides to a maximum of two sprays compared with ten or more per season for conventional control methods. A team of Thai and Japanese scientists has demonstrated the utility of yellow sticky traps to capture P. xylostella adults, thereby reducing their oviposition and subsequent damage by larvae (Rushtapakornchai et al., 1992). Combining mustard trap cropping and yellow sticky traps may reduce the need for insecticides even more. In Japan, field tests of mating disruption by pheromones, population of P. xylostella have been reduced by 95% compared with control fields (Ohno et al., 1992).
In addition to the ubiquitous use of neem (Azadirachta indica) extracts against P. xylostella (Williams and Mansigh, 1996; Moorthy et al., 1998), extracts of other plants such as Azadirachta excelsa (Sivapragasam et al., 2000), yam (Dioscorea hispida) (Banaag et al., 1997), nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus) (Dadang et al., 1996) and Aglaia roxburghiana (Molleyres et al., 1999) also exhibit significant insecticidal and/or anti-feedant activity. Extracts of the tropical herb Andrographis paniculata also exhibited anti-feedant and anti-oviposition activity against the larvae (Hermawan et al., 1997). In addition to these biological methods, current efforts to develop transgenic plants (Cai et al., 1999; Xiang et al., 2000), which confer mortality to B. thuringiensis resistant P. xylostella, sterile insect technique using partial or inherited sterility (Omar and Jusoh, 1997), and inoculation of plants with the endophyte Acremonium alternatum, which causes high mortality and affects larval physiology (Dugassa-Gobena et al., 1998), may also be useful in IPM programmes.
The concept of sampling populations and treating when thresholds are exceeded is fundamental to IPM and has been promoted in developed countries and in many developing countries of the tropics. The adoption of this strategy has been hindered because it requires regular scouting by trained personnel who may not be available. A few advances have been made in this area to ease decision making. Okadome (1997) suggested a simulation model for forecasting population fluctuations of P. xylostella. A forecasting system based on temperature and the number of moths caught using a pheromone trap has been developed for spring-planted cabbage in Hokkaido, Japan (Nakao and Hashimoto, 1999). A sequential sampling plan for sample sizes was developed by Chua and Sivapragasam (1997) to improve IPM decision making. Jusoh (1997) suggested a Plutella equivalent action threshold to cater for the complexity of pests included in the decision process for crucifers. This is an important development as previous thresholds were very much focused on P. xylostella, which is contrary to the field situation where farmers growing crucifers have to make decisions based on a range of pests. In developing countries, the adoption of IPM is also hindered because many farmers cannot differentiate between pests and beneficials, some farmers have difficulty in counting because of illiteracy, and resistance to multiple insecticides make most insecticide applications useless. Thus, in the tropics and subtropics, community-wide management most probably relies primarily on the release and establishment of as many parasites as possible combined with cultural practices. IPM programmes for P. xylostella have been effectively implemented in a number of South East Asian countries through researchers-extensionists-farmers cooperative activities as exemplified by the farmer participatory action research (PAR) activities in Farmer Field Schools (FFS) (Lim et al., 1997; Ooi, 1997).
Developing and Implementing a Successful IPM Programme in Cruciferous Crops
In three regions of New Zealand, P. xylostella resistance to synthetic insecticides was found to be associated with control failures in cruciferous vegetables. Scientists at Crop and Food Research initiated an IPM development and implementation programme. In just 2 years, the uptake of IPM by the local growers was interesting: 80% producers were using IPM and 96% were scouting their crops to gauge the level of pest infestation (Walker et al., 2013).
The following are important steps to developing and implementing successful IPM programmes elsewhere (adapted from Walker et al. (2013) with some modifications):
1. Refine action thresholds for cruciferous crops to match with the local conditions.
Carry out research to define (and redefine) an infestation level at which insecticide application is economical and provide an efficient crop scouting method to detect damaging populations. The use of action thresholds and crop scouting in crucifers reduced pesticide sprays by an average of 60% while improving crop quality (Beck et al., 1992).
2. Develop an early warning system in regions where populations are attributed to seasonal migrations.
In western Canada, a pest monitoring programme provides growers with weekly updates on P. xylostella populations in canola during the growing season (Prairie Pest Monitoring Network, 2021). The programme integrates wind trajectory-modelling, degree-day accumulation and development times of P. xylostella with counts from a network of sentinel sites with pheromone traps.
3. Develop an IRM programme and insecticide rotation scheme using IRAC-MoA framework.
A national IRM programme should focus on effective pest management while minimizing insecticide use and avoiding or delaying onset of resistance. The implementation of such a programme requires regional and national support for an agreed strategy while success requires the participation of a high proportion of growers.
4. Train crop managers and extension advisors on insect identification and crop scouting.
Train crop managers and commercial scouts in the necessary steps to identify pests, scout and monitor pest populations and natural enemies, and select and rotate preferred insecticides according to the IRM programme. Also provide them information backed with research on appropriate plant varieties, soil fertilization, habitat modification and other crop management tools.
5. Monitor insecticide resistance in pest populations and make changes accordingly.
Continuous checking and monitoring is needed to detect resistance levels in pest populations in the field and to conserve the efficacy of selective insecticides.
6. Evaluate the success and uptake level of IPM programme.
Quantify and illustrate the benefits of an IPM programme in terms of use of scouting, insecticide rotation and reduced sprays. The benefits can be measured from scouting reports and audits by determining the frequency of sprays, insecticide rotation strategies, degree of insecticide resistance and the quality of produce and by conducting surveys.
Links to Websites
Name | URL | Comment |
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GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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