Alternanthera sessilis (sessile joyweed)
Datasheet Types: Pest, Invasive species, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Alternanthera sessilis covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC.
- Preferred Common Name
- sessile joyweed
- Other Scientific Names
- Achyranthes linearifolia Sw. ex Wikstr.
- Achyranthes sessilis (L.) Besser
- Achyranthes triandra Roxb.
- Achyranthes villosa Blanco
- Allaganthera forsskaolei Mart.
- Alternanthera angustifolia R.Br.
- Alternanthera denticulata R.Br.
- Alternanthera ficoides P.Beauv.
- Alternanthera glabra Moq.
- Alternanthera nana R.Br.
- Alternanthera nodiflora R.Br.
- Alternanthera prostrata D.Don
- Alternanthera repens J.F.Gmel.
- Alternanthera sennii Mattei
- Alternanthera tenuissima Suess.
- Alternanthera triandra var. denticulata (R.Br.) Maiden & Betche
- Alternanthera triandra var. nodiflora (R.Br.) Maiden & Betche
- Gomphrena sessilis L.
- Illecebrum sessile (L.) L.
- Paronychia sessilis (L.) Desf.
- International Common Names
- Englishcreeping chaffweeddwarf copperleafkhaki weedrabbit weedrabbit-meat
- Spanishcolchon de ninocoyunturahierba de pericopaja blancasanguinariasantoma cimarrona (Dominican Republic)
- Frenchbrède chevretteherbe d'emballagemagloireserenti
- Chineselian zi cao
- Portuguesebredo-de-aguaperiquito-sessilperpetua
- Local Common Names
- Cambodiacheng bângkongphak phew
- Fijigaluti
- GermanyGarnelenkraut
- Indonesiabayem kremahdaun tolodkremahkremektolod
- Japantsurunogeito
- Laoskhaix ped
- Malaysiaakar rumputbayam pasirbayam tanacarpet weed keremakkelama hijaukerak-kerak payakeremakkerumak bukit paya
- Nepalbhirangijhar
- Philippinesbonga-bonga
- Samoavao sosolo
- Sri Lankamukunuwanna
- Taiwanperiquito-sessil
- Thailandphakpet khaaophakpet thai
- Tongabrede embellage
- Zambiamkungira
- EPPO code
- ALRSE (Alternanthera sessilis)
Pictures
Habit
Alternanthera sessilis (sessile joyweed); flowering habit. Kadavoor, Kerala, India. December 2009.
©Jeevan Jose-2009 (Jee & Rani Nature Photography/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 4.0
Habit
Alternanthera sessilis (sessile joyweed); flowering habit. Kadavoor, Kerala, India. December 2009.
©Jeevan Jose-2009 (Jee & Rani Nature Photography/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 4.0
Habit
Alternanthera sessilis (sessile joyweed); flowering habit, in a rice crop.
©Chris Parker/Bristol, UK
Morphology
Alternanthera sessilis (sessile joyweed); Morphology: a) Flowers. b) flowers without perianth, three stamens alternating with two pseudostaminodes. c) pistil. d) utricle with persistent perianth. e) seed.
©SEAMEO-BIOTROP
Summary of Invasiveness
A. sessilis is a pioneer species typically growing on disturbed areas and in wetland habitats, and regarded as a fast-growing highly invasive weed. It is adapted to grow on a range of soil types ranging from poor sandy or alkaline soils, to loam or black cotton soils. It is also able to grow in seasonally-waterlogged areas as well as in areas with extreme dry conditions (Holm et al., 1997). A. sessilis can be found invading floodplain wetlands, margins of rivers, streams, canals, ditches, ponds, reservoirs, tanks, marshes, swamps, wet low-lying ground, ephemeral pools, seasonal pans and damp forest. This species is also a weed in fields with sorghum, millet, Eleusine spp., maize, cotton, cassava, cereal crops, pastures, and vegetable farms (Gupta, 2014). Consequently, this species has been listed as invasive in India, South Africa, Namibia, Spain, Hawaii and many other islands in the Pacific Ocean (see distribution table for details). It is also listed as a noxious weed in the United States (USDA-NRCS, 2014).
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Alternanthera is a diverse genus (80–200 species) and the second largest in subfamily Gomphrenoideae of the Amaranthaceae. The highest diversity of this genus occurs in South America, but many species also occur in the Caribbean, Central America and Mexico (Sanchez del Pino et al., 2012).
Description
A. sessilis is an annual or perennial herb, of 0.2-1 m high, with strong taproots. The stems are generally prostrate, creeping, often rooting at the nodes, sometimes floating or ascending at the tips, cylindrical and slightly hairy, with numerous, erect branches. The leaves are simple, opposite, shortly petiolate or sessile, broadly lanceolate or spatulate to almost linear, 0.6-5 cm long, and 0.3-1 cm wide. They are attenuated at the base, and the apex is acute to blunt, with entire, glabrous or pilose (thin, fine, articulate hairs) margins. The inflorescences are dense, sessile, silvery-white clusters of compressed spikes in the leaf axils; perianth segments are equal in length, acute, 1.5-2.5 mm long with a short point. Bracts are ovate, concave, 0.3-1 mm long and persistent; bracteoles are oblong-ovate, 1-1.5 mm long, may be acute, and not deeply lacerated. Sepals are 2-3 mm long, white or purplish, glossy with a green base, glabrous or with a few long hairs, and a strong midrib. The fruits are indehiscent, a small, flattened, obcordate or obovate utricle, 2-2.5 mm long, enclosing the seed. Seeds are dark-brown to black, disc-shaped and shiny, about 0.8-1 mm in diameter. They are light sensitive and the average number of seeds per plant is ca 2000.
Distribution
A. sessilis has a pantropical distribution, being present throughout the Old World tropics, tropical Africa, southern and eastern Asia and Australia. The native range is uncertain (Gupta, 2014). Many Chinese publications (e.g. Fan et al., 2013) describe it as native to China, and USDA-ARS (2014) lists the native range as China and southern to southeastern Asia. It is reported as native to some of the Pacific Ocean island groups and as introduced to others (Gupta, 2014). However, the most recent study of the genera Alternanthera suggests that A. sessilis originated in South America and from here was introduced to the Old World (Sanchez del Pino et al., 2012).
See Holm et al. (1991), Gupta (2014) and the distribution table for a list of countries in which this species has been recorded.
See Holm et al. (1991), Gupta (2014) and the distribution table for a list of countries in which this species has been recorded.
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
Risk of Introduction
The risk of introduction of A. sessilis is moderate. This species is commercialized for ornamental purposes, and its seeds are naturally spread by wind and water. The probability for A. sessilis to colonize new areas is therefore high principally in areas near cultivation. In the USA, the species is listed as a noxious weed (USDA-NRCS, 2014).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
A. sessilis spreads by seeds and vegetatively by stems that run along the soil surface and root at the nodes. Seeds are dispersed by wind and water and stem fragments can be carried considerable distances by floodwater—downstream and out over floodplains. Once established, stem fragments can produce new roots. Fragmentation and dispersal can also occur as a result of human activity (Holm et al., 1997).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Weed | Yes | Yes | |
| Disturbance (pathway cause) | Weed | Yes | Yes | |
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Stems and seeds | Yes | Yes | |
| Garden waste disposal (pathway cause) | Planted in gardens and water-gardens | Yes | Yes | |
| Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Planted in water-gardens | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Stems | Yes | Yes | |
| Floating vegetation and debris (pathway vector) | Stems and fruits | Yes | Yes | |
| Water (pathway vector) | Seeds | Yes | Yes | |
| Wind (pathway vector) | Seeds | Yes | Yes |
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
| Host | Family | Host status | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Arachis hypogaea (groundnut) | Fabaceae | Main | |
| Eleusine coracana (finger millet) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Gossypium (cotton) | Malvaceae | Main | |
| Manihot esculenta (cassava) | Euphorbiaceae | Main | |
| Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) | Solanaceae | Main | |
| Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Panicum miliaceum (millet) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Polyphagous (polyphagous) | Main | ||
| Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Unknown | |
| Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Unknown | |
| Sorghum bicolor (sorghum) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Main |
Growth Stages
Flowering stage
Fruiting stage
Post-harvest
Seedling stage
Vegetative growing stage
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Mature A. sessilis is quite similar to the highly invasive A. philoxeroides, but the latter is a perennial and the clusters of flowers are carried on distinct peduncles. The similarity of the species is such that Sri Lankan community members living in Australia have been reported as mistakenly growing A. philoxeroides when intending to cultivate A. sessilis as a vegetable (Gunasekera, 2008).
Habitat
A. sessilis is a common pantropical weed of shady, damp soils in cultivated and waste areas. It is commonly associated with roadsides, pathways, wasteland, irrigation canals, ditches, dykes, gardens, swamps, and fallow ground. It can be found in hydromorphic ricefields in West Africa and Asia, and in the following cultivated areas: maize crops in Nigeria; sorghum, millet, Eleusine sp., maize, cotton, cassava, groundnuts and cash crops in Zaire; and tobacco, dryland field crops, pastures and vegetable farms in the Philippines. While it is typically found growing on disturbed parts of a variety of wetland habitats, including in water up to 1 m deep (Gupta, 2014), the plant is adapted to both hydric and xeric conditions (Datta and Biswas, 1979).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for A. sessilis varied from 2n = 34 to 2n = 40 (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014).
The chromosome number reported for A. sessilis varied from 2n = 34 to 2n = 40 (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014).
Reproductive biology and Phenology:
A. sessilis is an annual or perennial herb, 0.2-1 m high, with strong creeping tap roots. The stems are generally prostrate, often rooting at the nodes, sometimes floating, creeping or ascending at the tips, cylindrical and slightly hairy, with numerous erect branches. It is propagated by vegetative fragments, and seeds, and fruits which are dispersed myrmechorously (by ants) (Moody et al., 1984; Pancho, 1986; Soerjani et al., 1987). The average number of seeds produced per plant is ca 2000.
A. sessilis has been recorded flowering and fruiting all year in some areas. In India, the plants flower and fruit throughout the year with most vigorous vegetative growth at the onset of the monsoon season, and most vigorous reproductive growth at the end of the season. Flowers are self-pollinated and the fruits are dispersed by both wind and water. In Java, Indonesia, it flowers from January to December (Datta and Biswas, 1979; Pancho, 1986; Soerjani et al., 1987). In China the species flowers from May to July and fruits from July to September (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014). In North America it has been recorded flowering during summer or early autumn (Holm et al., 1997).
A. sessilis is an annual or perennial herb, 0.2-1 m high, with strong creeping tap roots. The stems are generally prostrate, often rooting at the nodes, sometimes floating, creeping or ascending at the tips, cylindrical and slightly hairy, with numerous erect branches. It is propagated by vegetative fragments, and seeds, and fruits which are dispersed myrmechorously (by ants) (Moody et al., 1984; Pancho, 1986; Soerjani et al., 1987). The average number of seeds produced per plant is ca 2000.
A. sessilis has been recorded flowering and fruiting all year in some areas. In India, the plants flower and fruit throughout the year with most vigorous vegetative growth at the onset of the monsoon season, and most vigorous reproductive growth at the end of the season. Flowers are self-pollinated and the fruits are dispersed by both wind and water. In Java, Indonesia, it flowers from January to December (Datta and Biswas, 1979; Pancho, 1986; Soerjani et al., 1987). In China the species flowers from May to July and fruits from July to September (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2014). In North America it has been recorded flowering during summer or early autumn (Holm et al., 1997).
Environmental Requirements
A. sessilis can grow on a wide range of soil types, preferring wet conditions. It can be found at low and medium altitudes in the Philippines, and from 0-2650 m in Irian Jaya, Indonesia. It prefers loamy, alkaline soils, low in exchangeable calcium and rich in total nitrogen. This species is able to grow in flooded areas (up to 90 cm deep), but it is also tolerant of extreme dry conditions (Holm et al., 1997; PROTA, 2014).
A. sessilis can grow on a wide range of soil types, preferring wet conditions. It can be found at low and medium altitudes in the Philippines, and from 0-2650 m in Irian Jaya, Indonesia. It prefers loamy, alkaline soils, low in exchangeable calcium and rich in total nitrogen. This species is able to grow in flooded areas (up to 90 cm deep), but it is also tolerant of extreme dry conditions (Holm et al., 1997; PROTA, 2014).
The species is often present in species-rich associations with a range of aquatic and wetland plants in disturbed wetlands. It grows in the drawdown zones of water bodies or in water up to 1 m deep, where it may be part floating and part emergent or even grow in mats of floating vegetation, but can also grow in relatively dry situations (Gupta, 2014).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| BS - Steppe climate | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | Tolerated | |
| BW - Desert climate | < 430mm annual precipitation | Tolerated | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Tolerated | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Tolerated | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Tolerated |
Rainfall Regime
Bimodal
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture > heavy
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil drainage > seasonally waterlogged
List of Pests
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Impact: Economic
A. sessilis is the predominant weed in paddy fields in Taiwan. It causes moderate yield and/or quality losses and is economically important in certain other rice producing countries (Chiang and Leu, 1981). It can be noxious (Soerjani et al., 1987). In Nigeria it is a weed of maize crops, while in the Democratic Republic of the Congo it has been recorded growing in fields of a range of cash crops (Gupta, 2014).
A. sessilis is an alternative host of the root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita and Pratylenchus coffeae (Goodey et al., 1965). Rhizoecus kondonis, a citrus root mealybug which causes severe damage to citrus roots in Fujian Province, China, has also been reported on the plant (Huang et al., 1983).
Myzus persicae, a vector of pawpaw ringspot virus and many other virus diseases, has been shown to replicate on A. sessilis in laboratory tests (Hsieh and Hwang, 1986).
A. sessilis is used in folk medicine in southeast Asia, and is also a popular leafy vegetable.
A. sessilis is an alternative host of the root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita and Pratylenchus coffeae (Goodey et al., 1965). Rhizoecus kondonis, a citrus root mealybug which causes severe damage to citrus roots in Fujian Province, China, has also been reported on the plant (Huang et al., 1983).
Myzus persicae, a vector of pawpaw ringspot virus and many other virus diseases, has been shown to replicate on A. sessilis in laboratory tests (Hsieh and Hwang, 1986).
A. sessilis is used in folk medicine in southeast Asia, and is also a popular leafy vegetable.
Impact: Environmental
A. sessilis is an environmental and agricultural weed and an invasive plant principally in wetlands. Under favorable conditions, it grows forming pure stands of dense, interwoven stems that smother aquatic and semi-aquatic habitats; block irrigation ditches and dams; replace native vegetation; and interfere with crops and pastures in low-lying, poorly drained areas.
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Reproduces asexually
Impact outcomes
Damaged ecosystem services
Infrastructure damage
Modification of hydrology
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Transportation disruption
Impact mechanisms
Competition (unspecified)
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Uses
A. sessilis is a popular leafy vegetable, and is used as a folk medicine plant in southeast Asia (Gunasekara, 2008). Juice of the plant is an ingredient in medicinal hair oils (Gupta, 2014). The species also serves as good ground cover and fodder.
Uses List
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Vegetable
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Hand Weeding
A. sessilis is removed by hand weeding in rice fields in Taiwan as other cultural practices are ineffective against this perennial weed (Chiang and Leu, 1981).
Chemical Control
A. sessilis can be controlled using amitrole, and repetitive applications of 2,4-D and MCPA are also moderately effective against this weed (Soerjani et al., 1987). Ampong-Nyarko and de Datta (1991) list A. sessilis as susceptible to bensulfuron, 2,4-D, MCPA, oxadiazon and propanil but resistant to fenoxaprop and piperophos. It is also susceptible to butachlor (Parker, 1992).
Utilization of Weeds
An alternative method of controlling A. sessilis is through the utilization of the weed by farmers. Young shoots and leaves of the weed are harvested as vegetables in Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, the Philippines and Indo-China. It also serves as good ground cover and fodder. The weed can be used as a decoction to relieve diarrhoea, dysentery and refrigerant fever and can be made into poultices for application to wounds and sores, and to relieve inflammation. Medicated lotions may also be produced from A. sessilis for treatment of beri-beri and fever, and infusions of the weed can be taken internally for fever and inflammation of the intestines (Burkill, 1966; Soewardi et al., 1982; Pancho and Obien, 1983).
For further information on the control of A. sessilis in Australia, see Parsons (1973).
A. sessilis is removed by hand weeding in rice fields in Taiwan as other cultural practices are ineffective against this perennial weed (Chiang and Leu, 1981).
Chemical Control
A. sessilis can be controlled using amitrole, and repetitive applications of 2,4-D and MCPA are also moderately effective against this weed (Soerjani et al., 1987). Ampong-Nyarko and de Datta (1991) list A. sessilis as susceptible to bensulfuron, 2,4-D, MCPA, oxadiazon and propanil but resistant to fenoxaprop and piperophos. It is also susceptible to butachlor (Parker, 1992).
Utilization of Weeds
An alternative method of controlling A. sessilis is through the utilization of the weed by farmers. Young shoots and leaves of the weed are harvested as vegetables in Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, the Philippines and Indo-China. It also serves as good ground cover and fodder. The weed can be used as a decoction to relieve diarrhoea, dysentery and refrigerant fever and can be made into poultices for application to wounds and sores, and to relieve inflammation. Medicated lotions may also be produced from A. sessilis for treatment of beri-beri and fever, and infusions of the weed can be taken internally for fever and inflammation of the intestines (Burkill, 1966; Soewardi et al., 1982; Pancho and Obien, 1983).
For further information on the control of A. sessilis in Australia, see Parsons (1973).
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