Prunus serotina (black cherry)
Datasheet Types: Tree, Invasive species, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Prunus serotina covers Identity, Overview, Associated Diseases, Pests or Pathogens, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Management, Genetics and Breeding, Economics, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Prunus serotina Ehrh.
- Preferred Common Name
- black cherry
- Other Scientific Names
- Cerasus capollin Ser. ex DC.
- Cerasus longifolius Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray
- Cerasus serotina (Ehrh.) Loisel.
- Padus serotina (Ehrh.) Borkh.
- Prunus capuli Cav.
- Prunus salicifolia Kunth
- International Common Names
- Englishblack cherryblack cherry treewild black cherrywild cherry
- Spanishcapulícereza silvestre negracerezo americanocerezo negrocerezo negro americano
- Frenchcapulincerisier noircerisier tardifmerisier d’Amérique
- Russiancherëmukha pozdnyaya
- Local Common Names
- Canadacerisier d'automne
- DenmarkAmerikansk kirsebærtræglansbladet hægsildig hæg
- FinlandKiiltotuomiSyystuomi
- GermanyAhlkirscheAmerikanische TraubenkirscheElsenkirscheSpätbluehender Trauben- KirschbaumSpätblühende TraubenkirscheSpätblühende TraubenkirscheSpäter Traubenkirschbaum
- Italyciliegio nerociliegio tardivoprugnolo tardivopruno tardivo
- NetherlandsAmerikaanse vogelkersAmerikaanse vogelkerseboom
- NorwayRomhegg
- Polandczeremcha amerykanskaczeremcha pózna
- Romaniamalin American
- SwedenAmerikanskt körsbärsträdGlanshägg
- UKAmerican bird cherrycapulin cherry
- USAcabinet cherrycapulin black cherryescarpment cherrymountain black cherryrum cherry
- EPPO code
- PRNSA (Prunus salicifolia)
- EPPO code
- PRNSO (Prunus serotina)
- Subspecies
- Prunus serotina subsp. capuli
- Subspecies
- Prunus serotina subsp. serotina
Pictures
Tree habit
Prunus serotina (Black cherry) in the Botanical Garden of Agricultural University in Poznan, Poland.
Piotr Robakowski
Leaves
Unripe fruit and leaves of Prunus serotina (Black cherry) in the Botanical Garden of Agricultural University in Poznan, Poland. June 1999.
Piotr Robakowski
Leaves
Underside of Prunus serotina (Black cherry) leaf showing characteristic reddish-brown pubescence visible along the lower half of the midrib.
Piotr Robakowski
Overview
Importance
P. serotina is a deciduous, single-stemmed tree, often medium- to large-sized, up 38 m in height and over 1.2 m or more in dbh in its native range in the eastern USA, though south-western varieties are much smaller. However, where introduced in Central Europe, P. serotina is mostly a shrub, only rarely a tree up to 20 m in height. Black cherry was among the first American trees to be cultivated as an ornamental in European gardens, introduced to England in 1629. In many places it has become naturalized and appears to be highly invasive. The invasive behaviour of this species in several northern and central European countries should be taken into account when considering future introductions to moist, temperate climates.
Summary of Invasiveness
P. serotina is a species with rapid growth, persistence in shaded sites, a hermaphrodite reproductive system, high seed production and the ability to disperse its seeds through avian and mammalian vectors. P. serotina has become invasive in several northern and central European countries where it reduces the biodiversity of native woodland assemblages and impedes forestry production.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Prunus is a large genus containing many fruit tree species of global economic importance. USDA-NRCS (2004) provides North American distribution maps for the four varieties P. serotina var. eximia, P. serotina var. rufula, P. serotina var. serotina and P. serotina var. virens, though names and numbers of varieties vary between authors.
Plant Type
Perennial
Broadleaved
Seed propagated
Tree
Shrub
Woody
Description
P. serotina is a deciduous, single-stemmed, medium- to large-sized tree. In mixed hardwood forest it can also be a small, contorted, short-lived understorey tree or shrub. In the eastern USA, P. serotina achieves typically 38 m in height and 1.2 m or more in diameter. South-western varieties are much smaller (Uchytil, 1991). In Central Europe, P. serotina is mostly a shrub, rarely a tree up to 20 m in height (Tomanek, 1994). The following description is from Weber (2003): leaves oblong-ovate to lanceolate-oblong, with toothed edges, bright green above, pale green below. White flowers 8-10 mm in diameter growing in cylindrical racemes 6-15 cm long, each with approximately 30 flowers. Fruits are purple-black drupes of 8-10 mm diameter.
Botanical Features
P. serotina is a deciduous, single-stemmed, medium- to large-sized tree. In mixed hardwood forest it can also be a small, contorted, short-lived understorey tree or shrub. In the eastern USA, black cherry achieves typically 38 m in height and 1.2 m or more in diameter. South-western varieties are much smaller (Uchytil, 1991). In Central Europe, P. serotina is mostly a shrub, rarely a tree up to 20 m in height (Tomanek, 1994). The following description is from Weber (2003): leaves oblong-ovate to lanceolate-oblong, with toothed edges, bright green above, pale green below. White flowers 8-10 mm in diameter growing in cylindrical racemes 6-15 cm long, each with approximately 30 flowers. Fruits are purple-black drupes of 8-10 mm diameter.
Distribution
P. serotina is native to North America between 49°N and 30°N. Its range comprises central and eastern states of the USA and south-eastern parts of Canada; from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick west to Southern Quebec and Ontario into Michigan and eastern Minnesota, south to Iowa, extreme eastern Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Texas, and east to central Florida.
Several varieties of P. serotina grow outside of this range (Marquis, 1990): P. serotina var. serotina is also found in Mexico; P. serotina var. eximia grows in central Texas on the Edwards Plateau and the Balcones Escarpment; P. serotina var. rufula and P. serotina var. virens range from the mountains of Trans-Pecos Texas west to Arizona and south into Mexico; and P. serotina subsp. capuli is native only to southern Mexico and Guatemala (McVaugh, 1951; Marquis, 1990; USDA-NRCS, 2014). In some parts of the native range, P. serotina is also listed as a weedy species (McVaugh, 1951; Mulligan and Munro, 1981).
Individuals of P. serotina are, in natural conditions, scattered among other species or even form nearly pure stands at high elevations with impeded drainage (Hough, 1965; Marquis, 1990).
Review of Natural Distribution
P. serotina is native to North America. Its range comprises central and eastern States of the USA and south-eastern parts of Canada. Several varieties of P. serotina grow outside the mentioned area (Marquis, 1990).
Individuals of black cherry are, in natural conditions, scattered among other species or even form nearly pure stands at high elevations with impeded drainage (Hough, 1965; Marquis, 1990).
Individuals of black cherry are, in natural conditions, scattered among other species or even form nearly pure stands at high elevations with impeded drainage (Hough, 1965; Marquis, 1990).
Location of Introductions
P. serotina was among the first American trees to be cultivated as an ornamental in European gardens. It was introduced in England in 1629 (Hough, 1957) and has been planted in many other European countries.
Where introduced, P. serotina may invade semi-natural or managed woodland, particularly on acid sandy soils (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). It establishes both in forest clearings, margins and inside forests, often following a disturbance event (Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Weber, 2003). In many places it has become naturalized and appears to be a highly invasive neophyte. Black cherry is known as an aggressive colonizer, overtopping other species of tree. The invasive character of black cherry which has been naturalized in Europe's autogenic plant communities is an important problem in nature protection and silviculture. Dense thickets of P. serotina considerably inhibit development of other species' seedlings making difficult natural and artificial forest regeneration. It is very difficult to remove or reduce growth of P. serotina because of very intensive sprouting and seeding.
USDA-NRCS (2004) report that it is listed in the North American publication "Weeds of the Northeast". In many of the locations where it is an exotic, P. serotina has become naturalized and appears to be a highly invasive neophyte (e.g. Binggeli, 1999). Kowarik (1995) reports that it is one of the most frequently encountered exotic invasives in the Brandenburg area of Germany. At that location there was an estimated lag time of 29 years between first introduction and the first report of the species spread (Kowarik, 1995). Disturbance events promote the spread of P. serotina (Kowarik, 1995). Köhler (2003) lists it among rare but spreading 'grey list neophytes' in Switzerland. Similarly it appears on a list of invasive species for Belgium (Belgian Forum on Invasive Alien Species, 2003).
Where introduced, P. serotina may invade semi-natural or managed woodland, particularly on acid sandy soils (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). It establishes both in forest clearings, margins and inside forests, often following a disturbance event (Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Weber, 2003). In many places it has become naturalized and appears to be a highly invasive neophyte. Black cherry is known as an aggressive colonizer, overtopping other species of tree. The invasive character of black cherry which has been naturalized in Europe's autogenic plant communities is an important problem in nature protection and silviculture. Dense thickets of P. serotina considerably inhibit development of other species' seedlings making difficult natural and artificial forest regeneration. It is very difficult to remove or reduce growth of P. serotina because of very intensive sprouting and seeding.
USDA-NRCS (2004) report that it is listed in the North American publication "Weeds of the Northeast". In many of the locations where it is an exotic, P. serotina has become naturalized and appears to be a highly invasive neophyte (e.g. Binggeli, 1999). Kowarik (1995) reports that it is one of the most frequently encountered exotic invasives in the Brandenburg area of Germany. At that location there was an estimated lag time of 29 years between first introduction and the first report of the species spread (Kowarik, 1995). Disturbance events promote the spread of P. serotina (Kowarik, 1995). Köhler (2003) lists it among rare but spreading 'grey list neophytes' in Switzerland. Similarly it appears on a list of invasive species for Belgium (Belgian Forum on Invasive Alien Species, 2003).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
P. serotina has been cultivated since early times in Mexico and Guatemala. It was introduced in the 1500s to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, probably by Spanish conquistadores, where it is now extensively naturalized.
P. serotina was among the first American trees to be cultivated as an ornamental in European gardens. It was introduced to France between 1623 (Wein, 1930) and 1629 (Goeze, 1916), to England in 1629 (Hough, 1957), to Germany in 1685 (Wein, 1930) and has subsequently been planted in many other European countries for various purposes, including ornamental purposes, timber production and soil amelioration (Starfinger et al., 2003).
Vanhellemont (2009) suggested two distinct main pathways for the introduction of P. serotina into Europe: for ornamental purposes and for forestry use. The two introduction pathways are also reflected in the status of P. serotina in European countries. It is considered an invasive species in those countries in which it was introduced early and for forestry use, as both residence time and propagule pressure have been found to promote the invasiveness of a species. As a consequence, the present distribution of P. serotina still largely reflects the former planting efforts, such as in the Netherlands (Van den Tweel and Eijsackers, 1987), Germany (Starfinger et al., 2003) and northern Belgium (Verheyen et al., 2007).
The large range extension of P. serotina is due to planting rather than dispersal by natural means. Dispersal distances in Germany appear to be limited to less than 1 km in 40 years (Starfinger et al., 2003). Dispersal speed is higher in open landscapes, managed and disturbed forsts (e.g. after thinning) than in natural forests (Starfinger et al., 2003; Deckers et al., 2005). Vanhellemont et al. (2009) confirmed that invasive spread potential is not as high as was often assumed.
Kowarik (1995) reported that it is one of the most frequently encountered exotic invasives in the Brandenburg area of Germany. At that location there was an estimated lag time of 29 years between first introduction and the first report of the species spread (Kowarik, 1995). Disturbance events promote the spread of P. serotina (Kowarik, 1995). Info Flora (2014) listed it among rare but spreading 'grey list neophytes' in Switzerland. Similarly it appears on a list of invasive species for Belgium (Belgian Forum on Invasive Alien Species, 2003) and on the list of ‘100 of the worst’ invasive species in Europe (DAISIE, 2009).
Introductions
| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Australia | No | No | ||||||
| Austria | Yes | No | Considered naturalized in 1970; occurs on a national list with potentially invasive species | |||||
| Belgium | Yes | No | Belgian Forum Invasive Alien Species on (2014) | 1890 first observation in the wild | ||||
| Bolivia | Mexico | 16th cent | Yes | No | Introduced probably by the Spanish conquistadores | |||
| Colombia | Mexico | 16th cent | Yes | No | Introduced probably by the Spanish conquistadores | |||
| Czech Republic | 1811 | Yes | No | Restricted distribution; invasive only in some areas | ||||
| Denmark | Yes | No | Andersen (1995) | |||||
| Ecuador | Mexico | 16th cent | Yes | No | Introduced probably by the Spanish conquistadores | |||
| England and Wales | 1629 | No | Yes | |||||
| Estonia | 1932 | No | No | Estonian alien species database (2014) | ||||
| Finland | No | No | ||||||
| France | 1623-1629 | Yes | No | Restricted distribution; invasive only in some areas | ||||
| Germany | 1685 | Yes | No | |||||
| Hungary | 1897 | Yes | No | |||||
| Italy | 1922 | Yes | No | Restricted distribution; in Northern Italy widespread and invasive | ||||
| Latvia | 1805 | No | No | |||||
| Lithuania | Yes | No | Restricted distribution; naturalized in some parts | |||||
| Luxembourg | Yes | No | Restricted distribution; naturalized in some parts | |||||
| Netherlands | 1740 | Yes | No | Considered a forest pest since the 1960’s | ||||
| New Zealand | No | No | National Research Council (1989) stated that P. serotina was introduced “recently” to New Zealand | |||||
| Norway | Yes | No | Considered naturalized near Kristiansand in the southern part of Norway in 1980 | |||||
| Peru | Mexico | 16th cent | Yes | No | Introduced probably by the Spanish conquistadores | |||
| Philippines | Mexico | 1924 | No | No | Introduced into cool medium elevations of the Philippines | |||
| Poland | 1813 | Yes | No | |||||
| Romania | Yes | No | Planted for forestry purposes since the 1980 | |||||
| Scotland | No | No | ||||||
| Scotland | No | No | ||||||
| Serbia | >1900 | No | No | There is one known forest plantation with P. serotina in Serbia | ||||
| Slovakia | >1900 | No | No | Occurs on a national list with potentially invasive species | ||||
| Slovenia | >1900 | No | No | |||||
| Spain | No | No | Occurs on a national list with potentially invasive species | |||||
| Sweden | 1870 | Yes | No | Restricted distribution; naturalized in southern Sweden | ||||
| Switzerland | Yes | No | Restricted distribution; appears on the national black list | |||||
| Switzerland | Yes | No | ||||||
| UK | 1629 | Yes | No | |||||
| Ukraine | No | No | ||||||
| Venezuela | Mexico | 16th cent | Yes | No | Introduced probably by the Spanish conquistadores | |||
Risk of Introduction
The invasive behavior of P. serotina in several northern and central European countries should be taken into account when considering future introductions to moist, temperate climates. It has not yet reached its potential range in Europe (e.g. Verheyen et al., 2007) and shows a clear range expansion (DAISIE, 2009). Initial stages of colonisation are weakly affected by soil but strongly by light conditions.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
P. serotina seeds are dispersed by gravity and by animals. Birds and mammals can effectively disperse the seeds over 100 m (Pairon, 2007; Boucault, 2009). Seeds that have passed through the digestive tracts of mammals and birds have higher germination rates than undigested ones (Smith, 1975). Mammals that eat the fruit and spread the seeds include foxes, wild boar, deer and martens (Starfinger, 2004; Boucault, 2009).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Forestry (pathway cause) | At the end of the 18th century, P. serotina was recommended as a timber tree for poor soils and was | Yes | Starfinger et al. (2003) | |
| Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | |||
| Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Until the late 18th century, P. serotina was sparsely planted in parks and gardens in several Europe | Yes | Starfinger et al. (2003) |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Host and vector organisms (pathway vector) | Birds, mammals, small, seed-catching rodents and the dung beetle Trypocopris vernalis | Yes | Yes | |
| Livestock (pathway vector) | Cattle are reported to eat P. serotina fruits | Yes | Yes | |
| Wind (pathway vector) | The bulk of the fruits, i.e., up to 95 %, fall within the first 5–10 m of the seed tree in forests | Yes |
Host Animals
| Host animal | Context | Life stages | Production systems |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sus scrofa (pigs) |
List of Symptoms/Signs
| Symptom or sign | Life stages | Sign or diagnosis | Disease stage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Forelimb lameness, stiffness, limping fore leg | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Generalized lameness or stiffness, limping | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Hindlimb lameness, stiffness, limping hind leg | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Inability to stand, downer, prostration | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Musculoskeletal Signs/Decreased mobility of forelimb joint, arthrogryposis front leg | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Musculoskeletal Signs/Decreased mobility of hindlimb joint, arthrogryposis rear leg | Sign |
Habitat
In its exotic range, P. serotina may invade semi-natural or managed woodland, particularly on acid sandy soils (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). It establishes in forests, forest clearings and margins, often following a disturbance event (Cronk and Fuller, 1995; Weber, 2003).
In Europe, P. serotina occurs in both forests and in open vegetation. It reaches its highest cover values in stands of shade-intolerant trees such as oak, pine or birch. In the dense shade of beech, maple or hornbeam it does not grow well. It tolerates a wide range of moisture conditions and can invade wetlands but also dry grassland too dry for most other woody plants. It is sometimes planted in hedgerows. P. serotina also common in urban areas, parks and gardens, particularly in less intensively managed situations (NOBANIS, 2014).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | ||||
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
P. serotina is allotetraploid and has high genetic diversity (Pairon, 2007). There are four varieties described in the USA: P. serotina var. eximia, P. serotina var. rufula, P. serotina var. serotina and P. serotina var. virens (USDA-NRCS, 2014). One subspecies, P. serotina subsp. capuli, was described for Mexico and Guatemala by Marquis (1990) and USDA-NRCS (2014). This indicates a wide variation in morphological characters. No known breeding programmes have been undertaken, however. The variety introduced to Europe was probably P. serotina var. serotina (Vanhellemont, 2009).
P. serotina is allotetraploid and has high genetic diversity (Pairon, 2007). There are four varieties described in the USA: P. serotina var. eximia, P. serotina var. rufula, P. serotina var. serotina and P. serotina var. virens (USDA-NRCS, 2014). One subspecies, P. serotina subsp. capuli, was described for Mexico and Guatemala by Marquis (1990) and USDA-NRCS (2014). This indicates a wide variation in morphological characters. No known breeding programmes have been undertaken, however. The variety introduced to Europe was probably P. serotina var. serotina (Vanhellemont, 2009).
Ecology
In its native range, P. serotina has been classified as an opportunistic, fast-growing tree species with enough shade tolerance to persist in lower canopy positions (Sutherland et al., 2000). It is a typical gap-phase species (Curtis, 1959) that can regenerate in forest understories but needs more light for further growth (Auclair and Cottam, 1971; Starfinger, 1990; Closset-Kopp et al., 2007). Weber (2003) described it as a fast growing species with saplings that can take advantage of canopy gaps for rapid growth, having previously persisted in shaded conditions for some time. It is also classified as a stress-tolerant ruderal (Grime, 2001).
Closset-Kopp et al. (2007) demonstrated that the r- and K-strategies of MacArthur and Wilson (see Grime 2001) both apply to P. serotina, but to different life stages of the species. P. serotina behaves as a K-strategist in its early life stages, when seedlings and saplings of P. serotina are able to persist in forest understories. Adults of P. serotina can be considered r-strategists as they tend to maximize population growth and dispersal (Vanhellemont, 2009).
Reproductive Biology
P. serotina has a hermaphroditic breeding system (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). Reproduction is from seed, which the species is capable of producing large numbers of (Cronk and Fuller, 1995), or vegetatively (by sprouting). In natural stands, 30 to 100-year-old trees have the highest production of seeds, but Kowarik (1995) indicated that seed production begins at a relatively young age (at about 7 years). Seeds are dispersed by gravity and by animals and require cold stratification to germinate. Seeds that have passed through the digestive tracts of birds have higher germination rates than undigested ones (Smith, 1975).
P. serotina has a hermaphroditic breeding system (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). Reproduction is from seed, which the species is capable of producing large numbers of (Cronk and Fuller, 1995), or vegetatively (by sprouting). In natural stands, 30 to 100-year-old trees have the highest production of seeds, but Kowarik (1995) indicated that seed production begins at a relatively young age (at about 7 years). Seeds are dispersed by gravity and by animals and require cold stratification to germinate. Seeds that have passed through the digestive tracts of birds have higher germination rates than undigested ones (Smith, 1975).
Physiology and Phenology
The flowers appear after the leaves, from the end of March in Texas (USA) to the first week of June in Quebec (Canada) (Vanhellemont, 2009). In its introduced range it flowers in May-June (Closset-Kopp et al., 2007; Phartyal et al., 2009). The flowers are pollinated by generalist insects such as hoverflies and bees (Grisez et al., 2003; Starfinger and Kowarik, 2003). The fruiting period lasted from August to September in an open landscape in Belgium (Deckers et al., 2008) and from September to November in forest understories in Belgium (Pairon et al., 2006) and France (Boucault, 2009). The dates of flowering and fruit ripening may differ by up to three weeks among individuals of P. serotina growing in the same location (Grisez et al., 2003), and fecundity also varies between trees (Pairon et al., 2006). Some trees never produce high quantities of seeds, even in favourable conditions (Marquis, 1990).
Seeds remain viable for 3 up to 5 years in the native range (Marquis, 1975) and introduced range (Eijsackers and Van de Ham, 1990). The short-lived persistent seed bank ensures that P. serotina regeneration appears abundantly almost every year (Marquis, 1990). Germination is higher in litter than in mineral soil. In shaded forest understories, seedlings grow slowly but are able to survive for up to 5 years (Marquis, 1990). Methods of fruit collecting, extraction of seeds, storage and nursery practice are described by Schopmeyer (1974). Treatment of seeds and silvicultural methods were discussed by Marquis (1990).
Environmental Requirements
P. serotina grows well in temperate and moist climates. The best growth conditions in its native range occur on the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania and New York, USA (Marquis, 1990). Mean annual temperatures where the species is found are below 24°C, but it will tolerate maximum temperatures above 29°C and an absolute minimum of -40°C. Preferred mean annual rainfall is approximately 1000 mm, with a dry season not exceeding 4 months.
P. serotina grows well in temperate and moist climates. The best growth conditions in its native range occur on the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania and New York, USA (Marquis, 1990). Mean annual temperatures where the species is found are below 24°C, but it will tolerate maximum temperatures above 29°C and an absolute minimum of -40°C. Preferred mean annual rainfall is approximately 1000 mm, with a dry season not exceeding 4 months.
In Europe, P. serotina grows and proliferates in a climate characterized by a higher evapotranspiration and a lower annual precipitation that is more evenly distributed throughout the year than in North America. Here P. serotina is mostly found in oceanic and sub-oceanic climate conditions, but does not occur abundantly in the Mediterranean region, probably because of the dry summer conditions (Zerbe and Wirth, 2006).
P. serotina occurs on a variety of soils except for extreme wet or dry ones. The species is tolerant to various ground water conditions, although its productivity decreases on wet sites and it is intolerant of flooding (Marquis, 1990; Becker et al., 1997). It grows better on moderate and lower parts of the eastern or northern slopes than on dry soils exposed to the south or west (Marquis, 1990).
P. serotina most frequently occurs on very acid and relatively infertile soils (Ciolkosz et al., 1970; Marquis, 1990). Preferred soil texture ranges from sandy loam to silty clay loam. In Europe, P. serotina is found on acid to nearly neutral soils, nitrogen poor to relatively rich, and moderately moist soils (Zerbe and Wirth 2006). It is most common on acid and dry sandy soils (Starfinger, 1997). Podzolic soils are particularly prone to P. serotina invasion (Verheyen et al., 2007). On wet or calcareous soils, P. serotina is mostly absent (Decocq, 2007). On richer soils, the competition with other species may be too intense (Van den Tweel and Eijsackers, 1987).
Individuals of P. serotina are, in natural conditions, scattered among other species or even form nearly pure stands at high elevations with impeded drainage (Hough, 1965; Marquis, 1990).
Climate
P. serotina is a shade-intolerant, gap-phase species (Curtis, 1959). The best growth conditions for black cherry occur on the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania and New York, USA (Marquis, 1990). It grows well in temperate and moist climates.
Soil and Physiography
P. serotina occurs on a variety of soils except for extreme wet or dry ones. The species is tolerant to various ground water conditions, although its productivity decreases on wet sites (Marquis, 1990; Becker et al., 1997). It grows better on moderate and lower parts of the eastern or northern slopes than on dry soils exposed to the south or west (Marquis, 1990). P. serotina most frequently occurs on very acid, and relatively infertile soils (Ciolkosz et al., 1970; Marquis, 1990). The soil texture ranges from sandy loam to silty clay loam. Individuals of black cherry are, in natural conditions, scattered among other species or even form nearly pure stands at high elevations with impeded drainage (Hough, 1965; Marquis, 1990).
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 49 | 30 | 300 | 1700 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute minimum temperature | -40 | |
| Mean annual temperature | 24 | |
| Mean maximum temperature of hottest month | 27 | 29 |
| Mean minimum temperature of coldest month | -11 | -6 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | 0 | 4 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
| Mean annual rainfall | 970 | 1120 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil reaction > very acid
Soil reaction > acid
Soil drainage > free
Soil drainage > impeded
Special soil tolerances > infertile
Notes on Pests
Pathogens and herbivores that affect the commercial production of this species include the fungi Blumieriella jaapii, Coniophora puteana and Valsa leucostoma.
The most common disease is cherry leaf spot caused by Coccomyces lutescens which reduces tree vigour and can kill seedlings, though most other foliage diseases cause little damage. Of branch and stem diseases, black knot caused by Apiosporina morbosa is most common and can reduce timber value, as well as the Cytospora leucostoma canker. Root and butt rots include Armillaria mellea, Coniophora cerebella, Polyporus berkeleyi, and Tyromyces spraguei, and many other fungi cause trunk.
The most important defoliating insects attacking black cherry include the eastern tent caterpillar (Malacosoma americanum) and the cherry scallop shell moth (Hydria prunivorata). Gum spots in the wood are caused by the agromyzid cambium miner (Phytobia pruni), the peach bark beetle (Phloeotribus liminaris), and by the lesser peachtree borer (Synathedon pictipes). Archips spp. and Contarinia cerasiserotinae are among the more important insects can cause injury to terminal shoots.
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
Pathogens and herbivores that affect the commercial production of P. serotina include the fungi Armillaria mellea, Blumieriella jaapii, Coniophora puteana and Valsa leucostoma. Pythium spp., a water mould, is known to be responsible for low densities of seedlings near conspecifics of P. serotina in its native range on silt loam soils (Packer and Clay, 2003). In Europe, older trees of P. serotina are often infested by the parasitic fungi Chondrostereum purpureum, which seems to increase the trees’ life-expectancy (Kowarik 2010).
Insects from several orders feed on P. serotina, including Malacosoma americanum, Phloeotribus liminaris and Synanthedon pictipes. Furcipus rectirostris, a snout beetle native to Europe and northeastern Asia, predates P. serotina seeds in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. The North American fruit fly Rhagoletis cingulata, the larvae of which develop in P. serotina fruits. R. cingulata is a quarantine species in Europe, but it has been found in the Netherlands, Switzerland, Italy and Germany (Vanhellemont, 2009). A suite of native polyphagous Lepidoptera and Coleoptera feed on the non-native P. serotina in Poland and France. An overview of insect damage on P. serotina in the USA can be found in Marquis (1990).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chondrostereum purpureum (silver blight of stone fruit trees) | Pathogen | Netherlands |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Animal/plant collections | None |
| Animal/plant products | None |
| Biodiversity (generally) | Negative |
| Crop production | None |
| Environment (generally) | Negative |
| Fisheries / aquaculture | None |
| Forestry production | Negative |
| Human health | None |
| Livestock production | None |
| Native fauna | None |
| Native flora | Negative |
| Rare/protected species | None |
| Tourism | None |
| Trade/international relations | None |
| Transport/travel | None |
Impact: Economic
Repeated control attempts following resprouting from cut stumps and recurring seed spread by birds and mammals will incur an economic cost. According to different authors, the measures for P. serotina control can cost between €50 and €2200 per ha per year, depending on the abundance and size of the P. serotina (Starfinger et al., 2003; Van Raffe and De Jong, 2008; Caronni, 2010). In Germany, Reinhardt et al. (2003) estimated the total annual costs to be €25 million. In Belgium, € 126 000 were spent on P. serotina control in six military domains (totalling 1,525 ha) in 2005 and 2006 (De Bruyn et al., 2007). In a floodplain biosphere reserve in Northern Italy, € 830 000 were spent for P. serotina management (514 ha) between 1997/98 and 2007/2008 (Caronni, 2010).
Impact: Environmental
In many places P. serotina has become naturalized and appears to be a highly invasive neophyte. P. serotina is known as an aggressive colonizer, overtopping other species of tree. Dense thickets of P. serotina can change abiotic site conditions and considerably inhibit development of seedlings of other species, reducing floral diversity and making natural and artificial forest regeneration difficult (Verheyen et al., 2007). The leaves, bark and seeds of P. serotina are poisonous (Stephens, 1980) and may cause sickness or even death among some animals, although many species feed on the fruit (Kingsbury, 1964). The invasive character of P. serotina which has been naturalized in Europe's autogenic plant communities is an significant problem in nature protection and silviculture.
Vanhellemont (2009) summarized the environmental impacts as follows:
‘Dense thickets of P. serotina alter the light conditions and modify the topsoil (Godefroid et al., 2005; Verheyen et al., 2007). P. serotina may affect the topsoil through changes in the humus conditions and reduced soil water availability due to a higher interception and transpiration. The litter of P. serotina is indeed characterized by high nutrient concentrations and decomposes rapidly (e.g. Lorenz et al., 2004). The phosphorus content has been found to be higher below P. serotina (e.g. Chabrerie et al., 2008). The pH of the litter layer and the upper soil layer below P. serotina was lower (Starfinger et al., 2003; Chabrerie et al., 2008), similar (Verheyen et al., 2007) or higher (e.g. Vanderhoeven et al., 2005) than in non-invaded stands.
Studies on the relationship between P. serotina and understory species richness do not reveal consistent results. In several studies, species richness was negatively correlated with P. serotina abundance (Starfinger, 1990; Godefroid et al., 2005; Chabrerie et al., 2007). However, other studies found little impact of P. serotina on species diversity (Vanderhoeven et al., 2005; Chabrerie et al., 2008), and Knight et al. (2008) even found a positive relationship between understory species richness and abundance of P. serotina seedlings. Verheyen et al. (2007) found the sharpest decrease in species numbers on wet soils. On dry soils, the species richness was only marginally affected, but the species composition did change: stress-tolerant species disappeared, and competitors became more important (Godefroid et al., 2005; Verheyen et al., 2007). By altering the structure of the vegetation, P. serotina might also alter the habitat conditions for fauna: the dense P. serotina thickets provide shelter and produce fruits (Starfinger and Kowarik, 2003; Boucault 2009). Lepidoptera seem to be attracted to ripe P. serotina fruits (Korringa, 1947). Several arthropods typical of dead wood of broadleaved species occur in dead wood of P. serotina, which is often the only broadleaved species in invaded pine forests (Geudens, 1997).
In open vegetation types such as dunes, heathlands, and dry grasslands, P. serotina accelerates the succession towards vegetation types dominated by woody species, which might cause rare and endangered species of open habitats to disappear (Starfinger et al., 2003; Kowarik, 2010). In forests, the dense shrub layer of P. serotina might act as a recalcitrant layer that hinders the regeneration of other woody species and may have a long-lasting impact on further forest development (Starfinger et al., 2003).’
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Tolerant of shade
Highly mobile locally
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Reproduces asexually
Has high genetic variability
Impact outcomes
Altered trophic level
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of fire regime
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Negatively impacts forestry
Negatively impacts animal health
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Allelopathic
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Competition - smothering
Interaction with other invasive species
Rapid growth
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
P. serotina is often planted as an ornamental tree in eastern USA and in Europe. In the USA and in Europe it is used for surface mine spoil reclamation (Uchytil, 1991). The best results were obtained by planting 1-year-old seedlings.
In Europe it is also planted for the fixation of continental dunes and as a competitor against grasses and heather in heathland afforestations (Starfinger and Kowarik 2003). In Poland, P. serotina is sometimes planted in the undergrowth in pine forests and in mixed coniferous forests to enrich biodiversity and ameliorate soil conditions. However, as P. serotina later becomes an aggressive colonizer it may decrease biodiversity.
The reddish-brown, strong and hard wood of P. serotina is of importance in North America where it is used for furniture and panelling, lumber production, veneers, trim for boats and buildings, handles, crafts, toys and scientific instruments. Picture frames, piano actions, fixtures, woodenware, patterns and novelties are also made from this wood (Hough, 1957; Uchytil, 1991). It is especially suited for dining room suites, large desks and tables (Hough, 1957). The wood from sprouts can be of high quality and it is used for sawtimber (Wendel, 1975). It should be noted that trees with high quality wood grow exclusively in the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania, New York, and West Virginia (Marquis, 1990).
The leaves, bark and seeds of black cherry are poisonous (Stephens, 1980) and may cause sickness or even death among some animals, although many species feed on the fruit (Kingsbury, 1964). The fruit is used for making jelly and wine and for flavouring rum. The bark of P. serotina is used for production of medicines.
The reddish-brown, strong and hard wood of P. serotina is of importance in North America where it is used for furniture and panelling, lumber production, veneers, trim for boats and buildings, handles, crafts, toys and scientific instruments. Picture frames, piano actions, fixtures, woodenware, patterns and novelties are also made from this wood (Hough, 1957; Uchytil, 1991). It is especially suited for dining room suites, large desks and tables (Hough, 1957). The wood from sprouts can be of high quality and it is used for sawtimber (Wendel, 1975). It should be noted that trees with high quality wood grow exclusively in the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania, New York, and West Virginia (Marquis, 1990).
The leaves, bark and seeds of black cherry are poisonous (Stephens, 1980) and may cause sickness or even death among some animals, although many species feed on the fruit (Kingsbury, 1964). The fruit is used for making jelly and wine and for flavouring rum. The bark of P. serotina is used for production of medicines.
Uses: Wood Uses
The reddish-brown, strong and hard wood of P. serotina is of importance in North America where it is used for furniture and panelling, lumber production, veneers, trim for boats and buildings, handles, crafts, toys and scientific instruments. Picture frames, piano actions, fixtures, woodenware, patterns and novelties are also made from this wood (Hough, 1957; Uchytil, 1991). It is especially suited for dining room suites, large desks and tables (Hough, 1957). The wood from sprouts can be of high quality and it is used for sawtimber (Wendel, 1975). It should be noted that trees with high quality wood grow exclusively in the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania, New York, and West Virginia (Marquis, 1990).
Uses: Non-Wood Uses
The leaves, bark and seeds of P. serotina are poisonous (Stephens, 1980) and may cause sickness or even death among some animals, although many species feed on the fruit (Kingsbury, 1964). The fruit is used for making jelly and wine and for flavouring rum. The bark of P. serotina is used for production of medicines.
Uses: Land Uses
P. serotina is often planted as an ornamental tree in the eastern United States and in Europe. In the United States and in Europe, black cherry is used for surface mine spoil reclamation (Uchytil, 1991). The best results were obtained by planting 1-year-old seedlings. In Poland, P. serotina is sometimes planted in the undergrowth in pine forests and in mixed coniferous forests to enrich biodiversity and ameliorate soil conditions. However, black cherry later becomes an aggressive colonizer and may even decrease biodiversity.
Uses List
General > Ornamental
Environmental > Agroforestry
Environmental > Erosion control or dune stabilization
Environmental > Revegetation
Environmental > Soil improvement
Materials > Carved material
Materials > Miscellaneous materials
Materials > Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Fruits
Human food and beverage > Honey/honey flora
Human food and beverage > Spices and culinary herbs
Wood Products
Boats
Furniture
Sawn or hewn building timbers > Carpentry/joinery (exterior/interior)
Sawn or hewn building timbers > Flooring
Sawn or hewn building timbers > For light construction
Sawn or hewn building timbers > Wall panelling
Vehicle bodies
Veneers
Wood-based materials > Plywood
Woodware > Industrial and domestic woodware
Woodware > Musical instruments
Woodware > Tool handles
Woodware > Toys
Woodware > Turnery
Woodware > Wood carvings
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
It can be very difficult to remove or reduce growth of P. serotina because of its very intensive sprouting and seeding. Pulling up by hand may be suitable for removing seedlings and juveniles (Weber, 2003). Mature trees can be felled, but because there is vigorous resprouting from stumps, the stumps of felled trees are usually treated with herbicides (Drogoszewski, 1986; 1987; 1988; Weber, 2003). Annighöfer et al. (2012) also suggested a mixture of mechanical and chemical treatments as an effective method. All treatments may have to be repeated over a number of years. No single application of a mechanical control method has yet resulted in a lasting displacement of P. serotina (Annighöfer et al., 2012). Cronk and Fuller (1995) reported that there has been some investigation of the potential of a fungal pathogen for controlling P. serotina.
Silviculture Characteristics
Weber (2003) describes this as a fast growing species, with saplings that can take advantage of canopy gaps for rapid growth, having previously persisted in shaded conditions for some time.
Silviculture Characteristics
Tolerates > drought
Tolerates > shade
Tolerates > frost
Ability to > regenerate rapidly
Ability to > coppice
Ability to > pollard
Silviculture Practice
P. serotina can be reproduced by seeds or vegetatively (by sprouting). In natural stands 30- to 100-year-old trees have the highest production of seeds. Methods of fruit collecting, extraction of seeds, storage and nursery practice are described by Schopmeyer (1974).
P. serotina has a hermaphroditic breeding system (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). Reproduction is from seed and the species is capable of producing large numbers of seeds (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). In natural stands, 30 to 100-year-old trees have the highest production of seeds, but Kowarik (1995) indicates that seed production begins at a relatively young age (ca. 7 years). Seeds are dispersed by gravity and by animals and require cold stratification to germinate. The seeds that have passed through the digestive tracts of birds have higher germination rates than undigested ones (Smith, 1975). Germination is higher in litter than in mineral soil. The seedlings of P. serotina develop under a forest canopy but they can survive only several years as they need daylight of higher intensity to grow. Treatment of seeds and silvicultural methods were discussed by Marquis (1990).
P. serotina has a hermaphroditic breeding system (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). Reproduction is from seed and the species is capable of producing large numbers of seeds (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). In natural stands, 30 to 100-year-old trees have the highest production of seeds, but Kowarik (1995) indicates that seed production begins at a relatively young age (ca. 7 years). Seeds are dispersed by gravity and by animals and require cold stratification to germinate. The seeds that have passed through the digestive tracts of birds have higher germination rates than undigested ones (Smith, 1975). Germination is higher in litter than in mineral soil. The seedlings of P. serotina develop under a forest canopy but they can survive only several years as they need daylight of higher intensity to grow. Treatment of seeds and silvicultural methods were discussed by Marquis (1990).
Silviculture Practice
Seed storage > orthodox
Vegetative propagation by > stump plants
Vegetative propagation by > tissue culture
Stand establishment using > natural regeneration
Management
Control of the tree as a weed
Pulling up by hand is suitable for removing seedlings and juveniles (Weber, 2003). Mature trees can be felled but because there is vigorous resprouting from stumps, these are usually treated with herbicides (Weber, 2003). Drogoszewski (1986, 1987, 1988) proposed chemical treatment combined with mechanical removal, and the basal bark of mature trees may also be sprayed with herbicide (Weber, 2003). According to Cronk and Fuller (1995) there has been some investigation of the potential of a fungal pathogen for controlling P. serotina.
Pulling up by hand is suitable for removing seedlings and juveniles (Weber, 2003). Mature trees can be felled but because there is vigorous resprouting from stumps, these are usually treated with herbicides (Weber, 2003). Drogoszewski (1986, 1987, 1988) proposed chemical treatment combined with mechanical removal, and the basal bark of mature trees may also be sprayed with herbicide (Weber, 2003). According to Cronk and Fuller (1995) there has been some investigation of the potential of a fungal pathogen for controlling P. serotina.
Genetic Resources and Breeding
There are four varieties P. serotina var. eximia, P. serotina var. rufula, P. serotina var. serotina and P. serotina var. virens described in the USA by USDA-NRCS (2004), indicating a wide variation in morphological characters. No known breeding programmes have, however, been undertaken.
Disadvantages
P. serotina is known as an aggressive colonizer overtopping other species of tree. The invasive character of black cherry which has been naturalized in Europe's autogenic plant communities is an important problem in nature protection and silviculture. Dense thickets of P. serotina considerably inhibit development of other species' seedlings making difficult natural and artificial forest regeneration. It is very difficult to remove or reduce growth of P. serotina because of very intensive sprouting and seeding. Drogoszewski (1986, 1987, 1988) proposed the chemical treatment combined with the mechanical removal of the black cherry.
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| Belgian Biodiversity Platform | http://www.biodiversity.be/ | |
| Belgian Forum on Invasive Alien Species | http://ias.biodiversity.be/species/show/14 and http://www.biodiversity.be/bbpf/forum/invasion/invspecies.html | |
| DAWIS - Database of Alien Woody species with special regard to alien Invasive woody Species in the C | http://www.ibot.cas.cz/invasions/projects.htm | |
| Estonian alien species database | http://eelis.ic.envir.ee/voorliigid/ | |
| Fuentes N, Pauchard A, Sánchez P, Esquivel J & Marticorena A,. 2013. A new comprehensive database of | http://www.lib.udec.cl/basededatos.html | |
| GBIF (2011)Global biodiversity information facility database | http://data.gibf.org.au/nimpis | |
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Info Flora - Nationales Daten-und Informationszentrum der Schweizer Flora. [National data and inform | http://www.infoflora.ch/ | |
| ISSG database global Invasive Species Database) | http://www.issg.org | |
| NBN Gateway - National Biodiversity Network | https://data.nbn.org.uk/ | |
| Neobiota.de - Gebietsfremde und invasive Arten in Deutschland [Non-native and invasive species in Ge | www.neobiota.de/ | |
| NISIC - National Invasive Species Information Center | http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/index.shtml | |
| NOBANIS (2011) | http://www.nobanis.org/default.asp | The European Network on Invasive Alien Species |
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