Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry)
Datasheet Types: Crop, Tree, Invasive species, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Rubus parviflorus covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Rubus parviflorus Nutt.
- Preferred Common Name
- thimbleberry
- Other Scientific Names
- Bossekia nutkana Greene
- Bossekia parviflora (Nutt.) Greene
- Rubaker parviflorum (Nutt.) Rydb.
- Rubus natkanus G.Don (speling variant)
- Rubus nutkanus Mo‡. ex Ser.
- Rubus velutinus Hook. and Arn.
- International Common Names
- Englishwestern thimbleberry
- Local Common Names
- Australianative raspberry
- Czech Republicostružník nutkajský
- Estoniaväikselehine vaarikas
- GermanyHimbeere, Nutka-Nutka-Himbeere
- Korea, Republic ofmeongseogttalgi
- LatviaNutkas avene
- Swedennutkahallon
- USAAustralian raspberryJapanese bramble
- EPPO code
- RUBPA (Rubus parviflorus)
Pictures

Habit
Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry); flowering habit. The simple palmately lobed and veined leaves are characteristic of this species. nr Bozeman, Montana, USA. July, 2012.
©Prof Matt Lavin-2012/Bozeman; Montana; USA - CC BY-SA 2.0

Habit
Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry); habit. Consistent with other species of Rubus, R. parviflorus has a strong predilection for disturbance-prone settings, such as forest edges and roadsides. nr Bozeman, Montana, USA. July, 2012.
©Prof Matt Lavin-2012/Bozeman; Montana; USA - CC BY-SA 2.0

Fruiting habit
Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry); ripening fruits. Helsinki University Botanical Garden, Kumpula, Finland. July, 2010.
©Anneli Salo-2010/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Flower
Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry); close-up of flower. nr Bozeman, Montana, USA. July, 2012.
©Prof Matt Lavin-2012/Bozeman, Montana, USA - CC BY-SA 2.0

Fruiting habit
Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry); ripe and ripening fruits. ca. 1-1.5cm in diameter. Mount Pilchuck State Park, nr Granite Falls, Washington State, USA. September, 2008.
©Walter Siegmund-2008/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Ripe fruit
Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry); ripe fruit. Saddle Mountain State Park, nr Seaside, Oregon, USA. September, 2011.
©Walter Siegmund-2011/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
Summary of Invasiveness
R. parviflorus, commonly known as thimbleberry, is a deciduous, perennial shrub with small, red, edible fruits which prefers moist and open sites. It is native to North America, where it is widespread in the West, and in Canada where it rapidly invades disturbed areas. Its introduced range includes parts of Europe, where it is cultivated and has become naturalized and invasive in some cases, and also Australia. R. parviflorus forms an extensive underground rhizome system from which it vigorously sprouts. There is concern that, by forming dense monocultures, R. parviflorus outcompetes regenerating conifers of economic value after clearcutting.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Rubus parviflorus
Nutt., belonging to the Rosaceae family, is widespread across its native range in North America. The most used common name is thimbleberry or western thimbleberry. Although belonging to the complex and often confusing
Rubus
genus, it is a well-accepted species with relatively little taxonomic confusion. Some minor confusion exists, for example
R. cuneifolius
has been mistakenly reported as a synonym of
R. parviflorus
when in fact it is a synonym of
R. parvifolius
, a separate species (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015). This same confusion has translated to common names as well, where for example, it has been confused for Australian raspberry (common name for
R. parvifolius
).
Plant Type
Perennial
Shrub
Woody
Description
R. parviflorus
is extremely variable, particularly in terms of pubescence and glandularity. It is an erect, multibranched, leafy deciduous shrub ranging from 0.5-3 m in height (Gucker, 2012). Typically biennial stems are thornless and range from 2-15 mm in diameter. Leaves are simple, 12-20 cm long and palmately 3-5 or 3-7 lobed. The lobes are triangular, cordate, twice dentate-serrate and slightly covered with soft hairs on both surfaces, sometimes densely covered beneath. It flowers in terminal inflorescences of long peduncled cymes of 3-11 white flowers. Flowers are large, often 4-5 cm across. Sepals broadly ovate and 15 mm long, and petals are ovate, usually 5 and 15-30 mm long. Stamens and carpels are numerous, ovaries pubescent, style glabrous and club-shaped. The fruit, usually developing on the second year stems, are red, 1.5-2 cm wide and hemispheric. These are aggregates of many small pubescent, red drupelets (Oleskevich et al., 1996).
Distribution
Across North America,
R. parviflorus
is found as far north as Alaska and as far south as Northern Mexico, and from the West Coast of the United States to the Great Lakes region in the East (USDA-NRCS, 2015). It is widely and continuously spread across Western States but this is not the case in the East. Similarly, in Canada, it is widely distributed in the West and more narrowly distributed in the East. In its most northern ranges,
R. parviflorus
only occurs in coastal regions but is found at altitude further south. The species is also found in parts of Europe, including Scandinavia, the UK and parts of Western and Central Europe, albeit scattered (DAISIE, 2015). It has also been reported to be present, although with few isolated records, in Australia (Council of the Heads of the Australasian Herbaria, 2015).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
R. parviflorus
was first recorded in North America in 1818. However, preserved leaf impressions in Northern California suggest that it was present in the closed-pine forest during the Pleistocene Epoch. Migration from Canada to the Great Lakes region during a post glacial period may be responsible for its present distribution across North America. More recently, logging and land clearing has increased its abundance and distribution (Gucker, 2012). It was introduced for cultivation in the UK in 1818 and recorded in the wild in 1913 (Biological Records Centre, 2015). It has been reported that it was introduced to Sweden after 1950 (Tyler et al., 2015). There is scant information regarding introductions elsewhere.
Introductions
Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
UK | North America | 1818 | Yes | No |
Risk of Introduction
R. parviflorus
is mainly recognised as problematic in Canada. There appears to be relatively little concern about the species elsewhere in the world which may increase the risk of introduction to new locations, particularly into areas where it is valued as an ornamental, such as in Europe.
R. parviflorus
is available and modestly promoted for non-commercial cultivation in the UK (Plants for a Future, 2015) and in North America (Rook, 2015).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal
R. parviflorus
is a prolific seed producer, as evidenced by seed numbers being greater than 75 per m2 with 60% constancy (McGee and Feller, 1993). The seeds fall directly below the plant, resulting in short-distance dispersal (Haeussler et al., 1990). Rhizomal growth is responsible for much of the spread of the species.
Vector Transmission
Birds and mammals are responsible for wider dispersal of the seeds through feeding on the fruit (Haeussler et al., 1990). Burrowing animals have also been reported responsible for seed dispersal.
Intentional Introduction
Historically,
R. parviflorus
has been introduced to Europe and Australia from North America for cultivation and today it is available commercially in both Europe and North America.
Pathway Causes
Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Disturbance (pathway cause) | Rapidly invades disturbed areas | Yes | ||
Forestry (pathway cause) | Invades disturbed areas such as clear cut forest sites | Yes | ||
Horticulture (pathway cause) | First introductions for horticulture purposes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Soil, sand and gravel (pathway vector) | Seeds, root fragments | Yes | ||
Wind (pathway vector) | Seeds | Yes |
Hosts/Species Affected
Throughout the Pacific Northwest of the USA and Canada,
R. parviflorus
has been reported to limit or slow conifer regeneration after clearcutting (Haeussler and Coates, 1986; Gucker, 2012). This occurs under conditions that support the formation of dense
R. parviflorus
thickets which are thought to outcompete seedlings for light, moisture and nutrients. LePage and Coates (1994) found that lodgepole pine,
Pinus contorta
var.
latifolia
Dougl. ex Loud. [
Pinus contorta
var.
latifolia
Engelm.], and a hybrid spruce,
Picea glauca
(Moench) Voss ×
Picea sitchensis
(Bong.) Carrière., growth continually improved as the level of cover of
R. parviflorus
was reduced, and suggest a threshold of 5% cover, below which the growth of these tree species is not limited. When conditions do not support the formation of
R. parviflorus
monocultures, it has been reported that it provides shade and alleviates heat and moisture stress and thus supporting conifer regeneration (Gucker, 2012).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
Host | Family | Host status | References |
---|---|---|---|
Picea glauca x Picea sitchensis | Pinaceae | Other | |
Pinus contorta var. latifolia (Lodgepole pine) | Pinaceae | Other |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
The tall, erect and thornless stems of
R. parviflorus
and its large, simple leaves distinguish it easily from most other
Rubus
species. Growth habit and foliage are similar to
Rubus odoratus
but the two species can be distinguished by the different coloured flowers:
R. parviflorus
has white flowers and
R. odoratus
has rose-purple flowers (Oleskevich et al., 1996).
Habitat
R. parviflorus is found in a range of habitats but prefers moist and open sites. It is found in shrublands, riparian zones, and deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests. It is most commonly found in riparian areas and along forest margins and is abundant in disturbed areas. The species does not tolerate waterlogging and is more often found in well-drained lower floodplains or upper floodplains (Gucker, 2012).
Habitat List
Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | ||||
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Principal habitat | Natural |
Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number of
R. parviflorus
is reported as 2n=14 (Taylor and MacBryde, 1977).
R. parviflorus
may hybridise with other species within the
Rubus
genus such as
R. odoratus
,
R. laciniatus
and
R. idaeeus
(Gucker, 2012).
Reproductive Biology
R. parviflorus
reproduces both vegetatively and by seed. Vegetative reproduction is probably the most dominant method once the species is established. However, reproduction by seed is thought to be the species principle means of establishing at new sites. Vegetative reproduction is primarily based on its extensive rhizome system from which it is capable of vigorous sprouting (Oleskevich et al., 1996). It is this method of asexual reproduction via rhizomes which is largely responsible for the formation of dense thickets and large clones (Gucker, 2012).
R. parviflorus
can also be propagated through rhizome fragments or cuttings (Haeussler and Coates, 1986). Rhizomes have been reported to sprout after fire.
R. parviflorus
is a prolific seed producer every year, although it has been reported that the amount of seed produced decreases at higher elevations (Haeussler and Coates, 1986). In a dense mixed-conifer forest in northern Idaho, USA, 84 thimbleberry seeds per m2 were found in soil samples collected from undisturbed sites where
R. parviflorus
cover averaged 1% (Morgan and Neuenschwander, 1988). Seeds have been reported to remain viable for long periods of time and the species is referred to as a ‘seedbanker’ (Haeussler and Coates, 1986). However, Gucker (2012) suggests that this has not been verified. In fact, field studies have reported that viability decreases sharply after the first year and more moderately after the second and third. An experiment conducted on the germination of seeds collected from British Columbia, Canada, showed that mineral soil was superior to forest floor as a germination substrate, and that germination rates of
R. parviflorus
seeds decreased with depth of burial (McGee and Feller, 1993).
Physiology and Phenology
The phenological information reported here refers to that found in North America. In terms of vegetative growth, buds have been reported active in early spring (February), followed by bud burst and leaf flush in April/May, full leaf expansion from May to late August and senescence and leaf drop until late October (Maxwell et al., 1993). Flowering and fruiting dates can vary and have been reported to typically occur in June/July and August/September, respectively (Gucker, 2012). However, Oleskevich et al. (1996) report that fruiting can occur as early as June/July in the south and July/August in the north and at higher elevations. A long-term study in northern Idaho and Montana, USA, reported earliest flowers in May and latest flowers in August and earliest ripe fruits at the end of June and latest ripe fruits at the beginning of September. The same study reported the earliest date for fruit drop to be mid-July (Gucker, 2012).
Population Size and Structure
R. parviflorus
has been reported to occur in dense, almost pure patches as well as scattered individuals (Gucker, 2012). Open and disturbed sites such as clearcut forests and riparian zones are conducive to dense patches. Oleskevich et al. (1996) refer to two stages of growth at new sites: an initial building phase (first one to two years) followed by a growth and establishment phase. Initially, populations usually begin with seed germination and rapid increases in stem numbers and building of seed banks. Populations become dominated by stems and ramets and subsequently extensive rhizomal growth can allow a population to spread up to 50 m2 from the parent plant resulting in canopy closure. Population growth is limited by density, shade from overstory growth and competition from other species (Maxwell et al., 1993).
Associations
Gucker (2012) provides an extensive account of common plant associates that vary between regions in the USA. In Alaska, USA, the species has been reported to have ‘low’ importance for terrestrial birds suggesting that it provides 5-10% of diet and is infrequently used as cover (USDA-NRCS, 2015). However, others have reported greater importance for both birds as well as small and large mammals. For example, USA-NPN (2015) report that it is valuable to song and game birds and is the larval host for the yellow-banded sphinx moth (
Proserpinus flavofasciata
). Rook (2015) report that black bears, coyote, chipmunks, raccoons, red foxes, grey foxes, red squirrels and skunks eat the fruit. This author also reports that it provides cover for rabbits, red squirrels, black bears and beavers and that the dense thickets provide nesting sites and fruits for many small birds.
Environmental Requirements
R. parviflorus
tolerates a wide range of conditions in terms of altitude, climate and site and soil conditions. It is found from zero to 3200 m above sea level. In Arizona, USA, it was found as high as 3200 m above sea level while the highest reported occurrence in Canada was 1200 m above sea level in the interior of British Columbia (Gucker, 2012).
R. parviflorus
favours moist sites and is most limited by cold winters, short growing seasons and moisture stress during summer months (Haeussler et al., 1990). It is found on a variety of soils but preferring nutrient rich and well drained and aerated soils (Gucker, 2012). It has been reported as an indicator of nitrogen rich soils in Canada. The species is most vigorous under partially open or open conditions. It was reported to achieve greatest cover in Oregon at 60-100% of full light (Haeussler et al., 1990).
Climate
Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Preferred | |
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Preferred | |
Df - Continental climate, wet all year | Continental climate, wet all year (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, wet all year) | Tolerated | |
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
30-60 | 0 | 3200 |
Air Temperature
Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
---|---|---|
Absolute minimum temperature | -3 | |
Mean annual temperature | 7 | 14 |
Mean maximum temperature of hottest month | 22 | 28 |
Mean minimum temperature of coldest month | 0 | 10 |
Rainfall
Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Dry season duration | 5 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall | |
Mean annual rainfall | 600 | 2000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Winter
Bimodal
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture > heavy
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil reaction > alkaline
Soil drainage > free
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
In southern British Columbia, Canada, Wall and Shamoun (1990) examined R. parviflorus for disease and reported a number of fungi. Discosia sp. and Seimatosporium sp. were associated with leaf spots and Cylindrocarpon destructans [Neonectria radicicola], Naematoloma fasciculare [Hypholoma fasciculare], Resinicium bicolor and Verticillium sp. were associated with root rots. In Canada, R. parviflorus is host to thimbleberry ringspot, apple mosaic and raspberry dwarf viruses (Brunt et al., 2015; Oleskevich et al., 1996).
Natural enemies
Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Apple mosaic virus (chestnut mosaic) | Pathogen | Leaves | ||||
Hypholoma fasciculare | Pathogen | Roots | ||||
Neonectria radicicola (black root of strawberry) | Pathogen | Roots | ||||
Peronospora sparsa (downy mildew) | Pathogen | Roots | ||||
Raspberry bushy dwarf virus (raspberry symptomless decline) | Pathogen | Leaves | ||||
Resinicium bicolor | Pathogen | Roots | ||||
Thimbleberry ringspot virus | Pathogen | Leaves |
Impact Summary
Category | Impact |
---|---|
Cultural/amenity | Positive |
Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Impact: Economic
R. parviflorus
is a significant pest species in British Columbia, Canada, due to its competition with conifer species. Haeussler et al. (1990) report that it causes greater and more rapid mortality of young conifer seedlings than any other brush species. However, it is also noted that light or moderate cover of the berry may provide beneficial shade and reduce heat and moisture stress of establishing conifer species.
R. parviflorus
is valued for its genetic diversity for breeding (Finn et al., 2015). It has been identified as a genetic source of resistance for root rot in red raspberry (
Rubus idaeus
) (Daubeny et al., 1992). It is also cultivated and valued as an ornamental and for its fruit.
Impact: Environmental
In its native range,
R. parviflorus
is an important forest ecosystem species, playing a role in nutrient cycling and conservation, soil stabilisation and reducing invasion of other species (Oleskevich et al., 1996). Gucker (2012) suggests that it shows potential for revegetation and rehabilitation, citing one study from northwestern Montana, USA, where 73% of rootstock survived four years after planting on a roadside cutting (Hungerford, 1984). A study from Washington, USA, reported that it may be a useful species for revegetation of exposed sediments and to reduce increased growth of invasive species (Michel et al., 2011).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Gregarious
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Reproduces asexually
Has high genetic variability
Impact outcomes
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Negatively impacts forestry
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Competition - smothering
Rooting
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Social Benefit
The fruits of
R. parviflorus
are edible and said to be excellent for making jelly. Young shoots can be eaten and the leaves can be used to make teas (Rook, 2015). Moreover, indigenous people of North America have long used the species as food and for medicinal purposes (Gucker, 2012). Its leaves, berries and roots are reported to help with stomach ache, diarrhoea, hematemesis, haemoptysis, metroxenia, for wounds and to minimise scarring and swelling (Duke, 2015; Plants for a Future, 2015). The berries are reported to have been eaten both fresh and dried and preserved in cakes for later use. Both the berries and shoots are high in Vitamin C (Norton, 1981).
Uses List
General > Sociocultural value
Environmental > Soil conservation
Environmental > Wildlife habitat
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Fruits
Human food and beverage > Leaves (for beverage)
Human food and beverage > Vegetable
Genetic importance > Gene source
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Physical/mechanical control
Physical and mechanical control has rarely been reported effective. Manual cutting is reported ineffective as cutting stimulates rapid re-sprouting, even resulting in an increase in total leaf area (Haeussler et al., 1990). When soil is disturbed and roots fragmented, the stem density of
R. parviflorus
increases (Oleskevich et al., 1996). Similarly, when fire only destroys the top growth of the plant, recovery is generally rapid. The species survives fire through re-sprouting of rhizomes and seeds stored in the soil. Therefore, severe fires, where heat reaches the roots and rhizomes, can delay recovery of the species. However, this remains contested based on various conflicting studies in North America (Gucker, 2012). Some success with the combination of seeding and scarifying has been reported. In British Columbia, Canada,
R. parviflorus
establishment was diminished when a recently scarified site was seeded with legumes, bunchgrasses and sod-forming grasses. Application of fertilizer and a grass/legume seed mixture to a burnt site also reduced the growth of
R. parviflorus
Biological control
Biological control of
R. parviflorus
has not yet been realised, however, several studies report that this is a potentially fruitful pathway to follow. The Canadian Forestry Service-Pacific Forestry Centre has secured a US patent for control of weedy
Rubus
spp. with the pathogen
Fusariam avenaceum
[
Gibberella avenacea
]. A couple of studies have explored the potential of this biological control for
R. parviflorus
under greenhouse conditions (Shamoun, 2000; Oleskevich et al., 1998). Oleskevich et al. (1998) reported that foliar infection increased significantly when
F. avenaceum
was applied with a surfactant. Shamoun (2000) found that a formulation of
F. avenaceum
combined with a surfactant resulted in extensive foliar necrosis 24-48 hours after application. However, within three weeks new foliage and stems were free of damage. Shamoun and Sieber (2000) isolated and identified endophytic mycobiota colonising healthy leaves and twigs of
R. parviflorus
on Vancouver Island, Canada, with the long-term goal of using endophytes as biological control agents.
Chemical control
Several herbicides have been effectively applied to
R. parviflorus
in the Pacific Northwest region of Canada and the USA. These include glyphosate, sulfometuron, picloram and 2, 4-D and triclopyr. Hexazinone has generally been reported ineffective and only causes light damage to
R. parviflorus
(Haeussler et al., 1990). Timing of application is an important variable impacting efficacy. However, although effective top-kill is often reported, regrowth is also reported after one to three seasons. Results from 2, 4-D applications have been moderate, suggesting only light cover reduction (Haeussler et al., 1990). However, in combination with picloram, good control was reported (Oleskevich et al., 1996).
Links to Websites
Name | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
References
Biological Records Centre, 2015. Online atlas of the British and Irish flora. Wallingford, UK: Biological Records Centre. http://www.brc.ac.uk/plantatlas/
Brunt AA, Crabtree K, Dallwitz MJ, Gibbs AJ, Watson L, Zurcher EJ, 2015. Plant Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the VIDE Database. http://biology.anu.edu.au/Groups/MES/vide/
Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria, 2014. Australia's virtual herbarium, Australia. http://avh.ala.org.au
DAISIE, 2015. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. European Invasive Alien Species Gateway. www.europe-aliens.org/default.do
Daubeny H, Pepin HS, Lévesque CA, 1992. Breeding for resistance to aphids and root rot in red raspberry. In: Acta Horticulturae, No. 317. 187-190.
Duke JA, 2015. Dr Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases. Beltsville, USA: Germplasm Resources Information Network, National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/
Finn C, Swartz H, Moore PP, Ballington JR, Kempler C, 2015. Breeders Experience with Rubus Species. Adapted for the web by Joseph Postman, USDA-ARS National Clonal Germplasm Repository. USA. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cor/rubus/rubus.uses.html
Gucker C, 2012. Rubus parviflorus. Fire Effects Information System [ed. by Fire Effects Information System [online]]., USA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laborator. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/rubpar/all.html
Haeussler S, Coates D, 1986. Autecological characteristics of selected species that compete with conifers in British Columbia: a literature review. Land Management Report, Ministry of Forests, British Columbia, No. 33:vi + 180 pp.
Haeussler S, Coates D, Mather J, 1990. Autecology of common plants in British Columbia: a literature review. FRDA Report (Victoria, B.C.), No. 158. Victoria, British Columbia, Canada: FRDA Research Program, Research Branch, BC Ministry of Forests and Lands, vi + 272 pp.
Hungerford RD, 1984. Native shrubs: suitability for revegetating road cuts in northwestern Montana. Research Paper, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service, No. 331. 13 pp.
LePage P, Coates KD, 1994. Growth of planted lodgepole pine and hybrid spruce following chemical and manual vegetation control on a frost-prone site. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 24(2):208-216.
Maxwell BD, Zasada JC, Radosevich SR, 1993. Simulation of salmonberry and thimbleberry population establishment and growth. In: Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 23(10) [ed. by Gjerstad DH, Glover GR, Mitchell RJ, Horsley SB, Campbell RA, Zedaker SM, Dougherty PM]. 2194-2203.
McGee A, Feller MC, 1993. Seed banks of forested and disturbed soils in southwestern British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Botany, 71(12):1574-1583.
Michel JT, Helfield JM, Hooper DU, 2011. Seed rain and revegetation of exposed substrates following dam removal on the Elwha River. Northwest Science, 85(1):15-29. http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.3955/046.085.0102
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2015. Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Morgan P, Neuenschwander LF, 1988. Seed-bank contributions to regeneration of shrub species and clear-cutting and burning. Canadian Journal of Botany, 66(1):169-172.
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