Tagetes erecta (Mexican marigold)
Datasheet Types: Crop, Invasive species, Host plant, Pest
Abstract
This datasheet on Tagetes erecta covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Tagetes erecta L.
- Preferred Common Name
- Mexican marigold
- Other Scientific Names
- Tagetes corymbosa Sweet
- Tagetes ernstii H.Rob. & Nicolson
- Tagetes excelsa Soule
- Tagetes heterocarpha Rydb.
- Tagetes patula L.
- Tagetes remotiflora Kunze
- Tagetes tenuifolia Millsp.
- International Common Names
- EnglishAfrican marigoldAztec marigoldbig marigoldFrench marigoldsaffron marigold
- Spanishcempasuchilclavel chinoclavel de muertoclavelón de la Indiaflor de muerto
- Frenchtagete etaleetagète rose d'Inde
- Chinesewan shou ju
- GermanAufrechte Samtblume
- Local Common Names
- Brazilcravo de defunto
- Costa Ricamanzanillarudillo
- Cubachambergachambergoclavelóncopetecopetuda
- Czech Republicaksamitník vzpřímený
- Dominican Republiccaléndulaclavel de los muertosclavel de muertocopada
- Ecuador/Galapagos Islandsarrayosasintzo
- Estoniamadal peiulill
- Franceoeillet d'Inde
- GermanyAufrechte Sammetblume
- Greecekatifes
- Haitifleurs soucisouci
- Hungarynagy büdöske
- Jamaicamarigold
- Lesser Antillesoeilletsyellow marigold
- Lithuaniagvazdikinis serentis
- Mexicocempasúchilcempaxochitlcempoalcempoalxóchitlzanziltususzempoal
- NetherlandsAfrikaantjes
- Panamaamapolaclavellina
- Puerto Ricoclavelitos de muertoruda del pasto
- EPPO code
- TAGER (Tagetes erecta)
Pictures
Flower
Tagetes erecta (African marigold); habit. Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. March 2007.
©Dinesh Valke/via flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0
Flowering habit
Tagetes erecta (African marigold); flowering habit. Merrifield Garden Center, Merrifield Virginia, USA. May 2006.
©David J. Stang/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 4.0
Ornamentals
Tagetes erecta (African marigold); Flowers and leaves, sold as ornamentals. Kula Ace Hardware and Nursery, Maui, Hawaii, September 2007.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Ornamentals
Tagetes erecta (African marigold); Flowers and leaves, sold as ornamentals. Kula Ace Hardware and Nursery, Maui, Hawaii, September 2007.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Flowering habit
Tagetes erecta (African marigold); flowering habit, from a cracked road surface. Haleakala Hwy, Kahului, Maui, Hawaii, USA. April 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Summary of Invasiveness
Tagetes erecta is an annual herb that has been commercialized worldwide as an ornamental plant and as a source of natural pigments from its yellow/orange flowers. This species persists after areas where it has been planted are abandoned, and it has also successfully escaped from cultivation. It can often be found growing in a wide range of anthropogenic habitats where vegetation is regularly disturbed or maintained at early successional stages, such as roadsides, ruderal sites and pastures. Tagetes erecta produces large numbers of seed, is able grow in many climates and soils types and, once established, it can very quickly form dense populations that outcompete and displace native vegetation and other desired plant species.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Asteraceae, with 1620 genera and more than 23,600 species, is one of the most diverse families of flowering plants (Stevens, 2017). Tagetes is a genus within this family comprising about 40-60 species distributed across tropical and warm-temperate America, with a centre of diversity in Mexico. The species T. erecta is extremely variable and has been cultivated in Mexico since pre-Hispanic times. More recently, it has been extensively commercialized as a garden ornamental, and many cultivars differing in flower colour and size and plant height have been developed worldwide (Heuzé et al., 2017; USDA-ARS, 2018; PROTA, 2018).
The species Tagetes patula has been considered synonymous to Tagetes erecta in several flora revisions, but this species is also recognized as a separate species, especially when cultivated plants are considered. However, there are no reliable morphological traits to distinguish T. erecta and T. patula, though the former is reportedly diploid and the latter tetraploid. In cultivation, numerous intermediate specimens occur (Davidse et al., 2018; PROTA, 2018). Here T. patula is considered a synonym.
Plant Type
Annual
Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Seed propagated
Description
The following description is adapted from Flora of North America Editorial Committee (2018):
Annuals, 10-120 cm. Leaf blades 30-120(-250) mm overall, principal lobes/leaflets 9-25, lanceolate to linear-lanceolate, 15-25(-45) × 3-8(-12) mm. Capitula solitary; peduncles 30-100(-150) mm; involucres 10-22+ × (3-)5-12 mm; phyllaries 5-8. Ray florets (3-)5-8(-100 in 'double' cultivars); lamina yellow to orange, red-brown (sometimes bi-coloured: yellow/red-brown), or white (some cultivars), flabellate to ovate-quadrate, (2-)12-18(-25) mm. Disk florets (10-)50-120; corollas 7-12 mm. Achenes 6-11 mm; pappus of 0-2 subulate-aristate scales 6-12 mm and 2-4 distinct or connate, linear-oblong, erose scales 2-6+ mm.
Distribution
Tagetes erecta is native to Mexico and Guatemala. It has been intentionally introduced across tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world and now it can be found cultivated and naturalized in North and South America, the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, Europe and Oceania (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Davidse et al., 2018; GRIIS, 2018; PIER, 2018; PROTA, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018; USDA-NRCS, 2018).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Tagetes erecta has been extensively cultivated as a garden ornamental but also at commercial scale as a source of natural pigment. It has been cultivated in Mexico for centuries and probably spread from here to the rest of Central and South America where it can now be found extensively naturalized (Standley and Steyermark, 1949; Davidse et al., 2018; Heuzé et al., 2017).
In India, T. erecta was apparently introduced from Portugal in the late 16th century and now it is one of the most commonly cultivated flowers in urban and rural India, used for decorations and religious functions (Shukla and Thakur, 2018).
In Austria, it has been reported as cultivated since 1855 (NOBANIS, 2018). In China it was first reported in the 1930s and now it is listed as “widely cultivated” (Xu et al., 2012; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018). In Africa, it is cultivated on a small scale, mostly in Zambia and South Africa (PROTA, 2018).
Risk of Introduction
The risk of new introductions of T. erecta is very high. This species is extensively cultivated and has successfully escaped from cultivation. Additionally, this species can be grown in variable environments and its adoption as a commercial crop has been promoted in many developing countries, so it is highly probable that new introductions will occur in the near future (Heuzé et al., 2017; PROTA, 2018).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Accidental Introduction
Tagetes erecta spreads by seeds. As other Tagetes species, T. erecta produces large amount of seeds that have small “hooks” that aid in dispersal by adhering to animal fur and human clothes. Seeds are also dispersed as contaminants in crop seed and soil and in dumped garden waste (Cortés-Flores et al., 2013; PIER, 2018; PROTA, 2018; USDA-NRCS, 2018).
Intentional introduction
Humans have extensively moved plants and seeds of T erecta. Currently, it is one of the most popular garden annual flowers in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions of the world. This species is also cultivated at large scale to be used as a colourant source in poultry farming and human food (Kumar et al., 2004; Heuzé et al., 2017; PROTA, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Cultivated for the pigment in its flowers | Yes | Yes | |
| Cut flower trade (pathway cause) | Cut flowers sold in markets | Yes | Yes | |
| Disturbance (pathway cause) | Naturalized in ruderal sites, roadsides, open ground etc. | Yes | ||
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Seeds | Yes | ||
| Garden waste disposal (pathway cause) | Seeds | Yes | Yes | |
| Hitchhiker (pathway cause) | Seeds adhered to animals | Yes | Yes | |
| Horticulture (pathway cause) | Widely commercialized as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | |
| Industrial purposes (pathway cause) | Planted on a large scale for pigment extraction | Yes | Yes | |
| Internet sales (pathway cause) | Seed available online | Yes | Yes | |
| Medicinal use (pathway cause) | Used in traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | |
| Nursery trade (pathway cause) | Widely commercialized as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | |
| Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Widely commercialized as an ornamental | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bulk freight or cargo (pathway vector) | Seeds | Yes | Yes | |
| Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Seeds, dumped garden waste | Yes | Yes | |
| Soil, sand and gravel (pathway vector) | Seeds as contaminant | Yes | Yes | |
| Livestock (pathway vector) | Adhered to animals | Yes | Yes |
Hosts/Species Affected
Tagetes species, including T. erecta, are sometimes an alternative host for Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, a fungal pathogen that can infect a variety of crops (Rahman et al., 2015; USDA-NRCS, 2018).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
| Host | Family | Host status | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Unknown |
Habitat
The natural habitat of Tagetes erecta is the pine-oak forest zone of Mexico in a warm, low-humidity climate. Within and outside its native distribution rage, this species can be found growing in moist or dry thickets, open fields, disturbed sites, roadsides, mountain hills, savannas, pastures and shrublands at low to medium elevations (~2000 m). It is a common weed in cultivated lands and open waste grounds near villages (Davidse et al., 2018; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018; PIER, 2018; PROTA, 2018; Useful Tropical Plants, 2018).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for T. erecta is 2n = 24. Tetraploid plants (2n = 48) with smaller involucres and wholly or partially red-brown corollas included have been called T. patula by some botanists (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018).
Reproductive Biology
Tagetes erecta is hermaphroditic and its flowers are pollinated by insects (Kumar et al., 2004; PFAF, 2018).
Physiology and Phenology
In North and Central America it flowers all the year round (Davidse et al., 2018; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018). In China, T. erecta flowers from June to October (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018). In the UK it has been recorded flowering in July (PFAF, 2018). Flowering starts about 3 months after planting and continues for several months (PROTA, 2018). Seed germination takes two weeks (Useful Tropical Plants, 2018).
Longevity
Tagetes erecta is an annual, fast-growing herb. In cultivation it can grow up to more than 1 m tall, although in the wild it usually reaches only 25 cm (Davidse et al., 2018; Heuzé et al., 2017; PROTA, 2018; Useful Tropical Plants, 2018;).
Environmental Requirements
Tagetes erecta prefers to grow in open and sunny habitats. It grows well in sandy and loamy soils with a pH between 5.6 and 7.8. Although it tolerates heavy clays and dry soils but it prefers moist, well-drained soils. It does not tolerate frost or shaded conditions. Seeds germinate at temperatures between 20 and 30º C (optimal 25º C). It tolerates low to high rainfall and elevations (Gilman, 1999; PFAF, 2018; PROTA, 2018; Useful Tropical Plants, 2018).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Tolerated | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Tolerated | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60 | 40 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Mean annual temperature | 12 | 28 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall | ||
| Mean annual rainfall | 600 | >1500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Winter
Bimodal
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > heavy
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > alkaline
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil drainage > free
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
Tagetes erecta is susceptible to powdery mildew, leaf spot, spider mites and thrips. Botrytis blight causes the flower heads to turn brown and decay, especially in wet weather; a grey mold develops on the fading flowers. Although T. erecta can reduce the numbers of some nematodes in the soil (especially Pratylenchus penetrans), root-knot nematodes may cause serious damage in cultivation. Red spider mite (Tetranychidae) is often a serious pest in T. erecta cultivars, causing leaves to lose their green colour. Slugs are a major cause of damage too (Gilman, 1999; PROTA, 2018). Leaf spot disease caused by Septoria fungus has been reported in India (Shukla and Thakur, 2018).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Botrytis (onion blast) | Pathogen | Other/All Stages | not specific | |||
| Meloidogyne (root knot nematodes) | Predator/parasite | Other/All Stages Roots | not specific | |||
| Septoria | Pathogen | Other/All Stages Leaves | not specific |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Cultural/amenity | Positive |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
| Human health | Positive |
Impact: Environmental
Tagetes erecta is an invasive species that has repeatedly escaped from cultivation and frequently can be found growing as an environmental weed in areas where vegetation is regularly disturbed. This prolific seed producer may aggressively colonize ruderal sites, waste areas, roadsides, pastures and poorly managed agricultural fields. Plants may reach a height of 1 m and have the potential to effectively outcompete many desirable plants for light, moisture, and nutrients (Webb et al., 1988; Wagner et al., 1999; Charles Darwin Foundation, 2008; Xu et al., 2012; Oviedo and Gonzalez-Oliva, 2015; DAISIE, 2018; PIER, 2018).
Tagetes erecta produces allelopathic compounds that are fatal to nematodes and soil microbes and therefore in invaded areas it has the potential to alter the soil microbial community and soil chemistry (Gómez-Rodríguez et al., 2003; Selvam et al., 2015; PROTA, 2018).
Impact: Social
All plant parts (but mainly the roots and flowers) contain toxic thiophene derivatives and may be poisonous to humans. Dermatitis, skin redness, burning pain, and blisters may appear when broken skin is in contact with cell sap (NCCES, 2018).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Gregarious
Impact outcomes
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Allelopathic
Competition - monopolizing resources
Poisoning
Rapid growth
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Uses
Economic Value
Tagetes erecta flowers are rich in carotenoids and are used to make food pigments. Lutein is the primary pigment that produces the orange colour. Since this pigment is not produced synthetically (because the process is lengthy), T. erecta is the main source of lutein for commercial uses. In 2010, lutein occupied a $233 million share of the worldwide carotenoid market (Cantrill, 2004; Demers, 2015; Heuzé et al., 2017; USDA-ARS, 2018).
The flowers of T. erecta are either dried and ground to create marigold meal or mixed with a solvent to extract the pigment. Marigold meal and marigold extracts are used in poultry feed for colouring the skin, fat and egg yolks, and more rarely in aquaculture to feed fish (i.e., salmon) and crustaceans (Cantrill, 2004; Heuzé et al., 2017; Muñoz-Díaz et al., 2012; PROTA, 2018).
Marigold extracts are used as a yellow to orange colourant in a wide variety of food products including baked goods and baking mixes, beverages and beverage bases, breakfast cereals, chewing gum, dairy product analogues, egg products, fats and oils, frozen dairy desserts and mixes, gravies and sauces, soft and hard candy, infant and toddler foods, milk products, processed fruits and fruit juices and soups (Cantrill, 2004; Heuzé et al., 2017).).
Fresh and dry flowers are also used to dye wool, silk and cellulose fibers. The essential oil extracted from the plant is sometimes used in perfumery. The leaves are occasionally used as a condiment (Heuzé et al., 2017; PROTA, 2018).
Tagetes erecta is also extensively commercialized as a garden ornamental and many cultivars differing in flower colour and size and plant height have been developed worldwide (Heuzé et al., 2017; USDA-ARS, 2018; PROTA, 2018).
Social Benefit
Tagetes erecta is used in traditional medicine. The whole herb is anthelmintic, aromatic, digestive, diuretic, sedative and stomachic. It is used internally in the treatment of indigestion, colic, severe constipation, coughs and dysentery. Externally, it is used to treat sores, ulcers, eczema, sore eyes and rheumatism (PFAF, 2018; PROTA, 2018; Useful Tropical Plants, 2018;). Research also showed than essential oils extracted from T. erecta (cited in the paper as T. patula) are an effective insecticide against bed bugs (Politi et al., 2017).
In Mexico, Central America, India and Nepal, the flowers are often used in ceremonies and religious rituals for decoration and for making garlands. In Mexico and Central America the flowers are used to decorate the altares in the celebration of All Saints Day. In Honduras, water infused with the fragrant essential oil of the flower is used to wash corpses, and the flower is commonly planted in cemeteries. In Nepal and India marigold flowers are used as an offering to the Gods (PFAF, 2018; PROTA, 2018; Shukla and Thakur, 2018).
Environmental Services
Some Tagetes species, including T. erecta, produce nematicidal thiophenes in their roots and so are often intercropped or grown in rotation with diverse commercial crops to reduce diseases and nematode populations (especially Pratylenchus penetrans). It is also planted as an insect repellent and used to keep gophers away from gardens (Davidse et al., 2018; Heuzé et al., 2017; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018; PROTA, 2018; Useful Tropical Plants, 2018;).
Uses List
Ornamental > Cut flower
Environmental > Host of pest
Materials > Pesticide
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Food additive
General > Botanical garden/zoo
General > Ritual uses
Ornamental > Seed trade
Ornamental > garden plant
Ornamental > Potted plant
Environmental > Amenity
Materials > Dyestuffs
Materials > Essential oils
Drugs, stimulants, social uses > Religious
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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References
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