Tithonia diversifolia (Mexican sunflower)
Datasheet Types: Crop, Tree, Invasive species, Host plant, Pest
Abstract
This datasheet on Tithonia diversifolia covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsley) A. Gray
- Preferred Common Name
- Mexican sunflower
- Other Scientific Names
- Helianthus quinquelobus Sesse & Moc.
- Mirasolia diversifolia Hemsl.
- International Common Names
- Englishgiant Mexican sunflowershrub sunflowertree marigold
- Spanishgirasolillomargaritamargarita giganteMarisol
- Frenchpetite fleur soleilfleur de la fête des Mères
- Chinesezhong bing ju
- Portuguesegirassol mexicanomao-de-Deus
- Local Common Names
- AustraliaJapanese sunflower
- Cubaárnica de la tierragirasolillomargarita gigantemargarita isleñamargaritona
- Dominican Republicescopetamargarita haitiana
- El Salvadorguasmarajacalatemirasolito
- GermanyVerschiedenblaettrige Fackelblume
- Haitibelle venusfleurs soleil
- Indonesiaharsagakembang mbulan
- Indonesia/Javakembang mbulan
- JapanJapanese sunflower
- Kenyawild sunflower
- Mexicocampanachilicacate
- Puerto Ricogirasol mejicanogirasol pequenomirasol
- South AfricaMexikaanse sonneblom
- Thailanddaoruang-yipundenchamat-namthantawan-nu
- Ugandawild sunflower
- Venezuelaarnicarayo de sol
- EPPO code
- TITDI (Tithonia diversifolia)
Pictures
Habit
Tithonia diversifolia (Tithonia or tree marigold); habit. Kula, Maui, Hawaii, USA. May, 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Habit
Tithonia diversifolia (tithonia or tree marigold); habit, bush growing along a foot path in Uganda. February, 2014.
©Winnifred Aool-2014
Leaves
Tithonia diversifolia (tithonia or tree marigold); leaves. Uganda. February, 2014.
©Winnifred Aool-2014
Flowers and leaves
Tithonia diversifolia (tithonia or tree marigold); flowers and leaves. Uganda. February, 2014.
©Winnifred Aool-2014
Flowers and seed heads
Tithonia diversifolia (Tithonia or tree marigold); flowers and developing seed heads. Haliimaile, Maui, Hawaii, USA. April, 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Flowers and leaves
Tithonia diversifolia (Tithonia or tree marigold); flowers and leaves Haliimaile, Maui, Hawaii, USA. April, 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Summary of Invasiveness
Tithonia diversifolia is a herbaceous flowering plant that has been widely introduced as an ornamental and has escaped from cultivation to become invasive, mostly in disturbed sites, along roadsides and in ruderal areas near cultivation. T. diversifolia is a successful invader of new habitats through its tolerance to heat and drought, its rapid growth rates and its large production of lightweight seeds which are easily dispersed by wind, water and animals. Dormant seeds also remain viable in the soil for up to four months. Once established, T. diversifolia quickly forms dense stands with the potential to outcompete native vegetation and thus prevent the recruitment and growth of native plant species. Allelopathic activity has also been reported for this species.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The genus Tithonia comprises about 11-20 species with a centre of distribution in Mexico and Central America (Morales, 2000; The Plant List, 2013; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018). Species within this genus are variable in life forms (i.e. herbs, shrubs, small trees), life span (including annuals and perennials) and in their patterns of distribution ranging from wide distribution to restricted endemism (Morales, 2000). Two species, T. diversifolia and T. rotundifolia, are widely cultivated as ornamentals and have escaped to become invasive weeds in many tropical and subtropical areas around the world (Morales, 2000; Davidse et al., 2018).
Plant Type
Herbaceous
Perennial
Broadleaved
Seed propagated
Shrub
Woody
Description
The following description is from PIER (2018):
Perennials, subshrubs or shrubs, 2 m tall or more. Stems striate, puberulent. Leaves alternate, ovate, or cuneiform, 10-15 cm long, apex acuminate or acute, base acuminate, entire, 3-5-lobed, lobes acute with broad, rounded sinuses, margins often crenate, upper surface velutinous, lower surface scabrous; petiole 5-15 cm long. Heads solitary, radiate, large and showy, ca. 10 cm across; peduncle 8-15 cm long; involucre 2.4-4 cm across, bracts in 3 or 4 series, graduated, imbricate, 1-2 cm long. Ray florets ca. 9-14 in one row, ligules elliptic, 4-6 cm long, apically 2- or 3-dentate, puberulent on abaxial surface. Disc florets numerous, ca. 15 mm long, corolla tubular, pubescent on abaxial surface, lobes yellow. Achenes dark brown, flat, somewhat triquetrous, 5-6 mm long, sericeous. Pappus of 2 sturdy awns and several shorter, broader scales that are connate at base, awns 4-5 mm long.
Distribution
Tithonia diversifolia is native to Mexico and Central America. It has been widely introduced throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world and it can now be found cultivated and naturalized across South America, the West Indies, Africa, Asia, Australia and on many islands across the Pacific and Indian Ocean (GRIIS, 2018; ISSG, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Tithonia diversifolia was first recorded in China as an ornamental in 1936. It was first planted in Banna, a county in the Yunnan province (Wang et al., 2004). By the 1950s T. diversifolia was planted in villages and along the roadsides across the Yunnan Province. In the 1970s, farmers cultivated T. diversifolia as green manure but later with the emergence of chemical fertilizers, the cultivation of this species was abandoned. Since then, populations have expanded and it can now be found in 60% of Yunnan at altitudes from 70 m to 2000 m (Wang et al., 2004).
In West Africa, T. diversifolia was introduced with imported grains or as an ornamental (Muoghalu and Chuba, 2005). In Nigeria, T. diversifolia was apparently introduced as a contaminant with imported seeds of maize (Zea mays) (Akobundu and Agyakwa, 1987). In Kenya, it was first introduced as an ornamental plant in the 1940s and has now spread to western and central provinces, coastal regions and parts of the Rift Valley. In South Africa, it was introduced as ornamental and was first collected within the Kruger National Park in 1953 (Foxcroft et al., 2003).
Introductions
| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Kenya | Central America | Yes | No | |||||
| Nigeria | Israel | Late 1970's | Yes | No | imported in maize seeds | |||
| Yunnan | Mexico | 1930's | Yes | No | ||||
Risk of Introduction
The risk of new introductions of Tithonia diversifolia is very high. This species is widely commercialized as an ornamental and hedge plant. It is a prolific seed producer with small seeds that can be easily dispersed by wind, water and animals, facilitating expansion into new areas. There is also the risk of unintentional introductions as a contaminant in important crop or ornamental seeds (Muoghalu and Chuba, 2005; Queensland Government, 2018).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Tithonia diversifolia spreads by seed. This species produces a large amount of small seeds, which may be dispersed by wind, water and animals. Seeds may also be spread in dumped garden waste and through contaminated agricultural produce (Orwa et al., 2009; Queensland Government, 2018).
Natural dispersal (non-biotic)
The pubescent seed with a pappus can be dispersed by wind and can also be carried over large areas by water currents.
Intentional introduction
T. diversifolia has been intentionally moved over large distances by humans to be used as an ornamental and in agroforestry systems (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018; PIER, 2018; Queensland Government, 2018).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Weed | Yes | Yes | |
| Disturbance (pathway cause) | Weed, often naturalized in disturbed sites and roadsides | Yes | Yes | |
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Seeds in dumped garden waste | Yes | Yes | |
| Forage (pathway cause) | Used as forage and fodder | Yes | ||
| Habitat restoration and improvement (pathway cause) | Planted for soil improver and erosion control | Yes | Yes | |
| Hedges and windbreaks (pathway cause) | Often planted as hedge plant | Yes | Yes | |
| Hitchhiker (pathway cause) | Contaminant agricultural produce | Yes | ||
| Horticulture (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Medicinal use (pathway cause) | Yes | |||
| Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Seed trade (pathway cause) | Seed widely commercialized - available online | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mail (pathway vector) | Seed widely commercialized and available online | Yes | Yes | |
| Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Seeds in garden waste | Yes | ||
| Water (pathway vector) | Seeds | Yes | Yes | |
| Wind (pathway vector) | Seeds | Yes | Yes | |
Hosts/Species Affected
Tithonia diversifolia is listed as a weed of rice (Oryza sativa), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and maize (Zea mays) plantations (Imeokpara and Okusanya, 1994). Extracts of T. diversifolia have been found to be toxic to several crop plants, including rice (O. sativa), maize (Z. mays), sorghum (S. bicolor), lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculate) in laboratory experiments, suggesting allelopathic activity (Suzuki et al., 2017).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
| Host | Family | Host status | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Allium cepa (onion) | Liliaceae | Unknown | Ávila-Alistac et al. (2017) |
| Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Unknown | |
| Sorghum bicolor (sorghum) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Main |
Growth Stages
Pre-emergence
Seedling stage
Vegetative growing stage
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Tithonia diversifolia is similar to the closely related T. rotundifolia and to the common sunflower Helianthus annuus. These species can be distinguished by the following traits (Queensland Government, 2018):
•Tithonia diversifolia has leaves with 3-7 pointed lobes. Its flower-heads have bright yellow centres and yellow 'petals (i.e. ray florets) 4-7 cm long.
•Tithonia rotundifolia has leaves without lobes or with rounded lobes. Its flower-heads have bright yellow centres and orange or reddish 'petals' (i.e. ray florets) 2-3.5 cm long.
•Helianthus annuus has leaves without lobes. Its flower-heads have orange-brown to dark brown centres and yellow 'petals' (i.e. ray florets) 2-3 cm long.
Habitat
Tithonia diversifolia is a common weed of roadsides, wastelands, field edges, riverbanks, disturbed sites, forest edges, borders of orchards, groves and disturbed secondary forests at elevations ranging from near sea level to 2300 m. It is also cultivated as an ornamental and hedge plant in gardens from which it escapes and naturalizes in neglected suburban lots and nearby disturbed areas (Ng’inja et al., 1998; BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018; PIER, 2018; Queensland Government, 2018; Useful Tropical Plants, 2018).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Other | Soil | Principal habitat | Natural | |
| Terrestrial | ||||
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Principal habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Scrub / shrublands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for Tithonia diversifolia is 2n = 34 (Goldblatt and Johnson, 2012).
Reproductive biology
The reproductive biology of T. diversifolia is unknown. However, the closely related species T. tubaeformis and T. rotundifolia are species showing sporophytic incompatibility, and thus are obligate outcrossers (Muoghalu and Chuba, 2005; López-Caamal et al., 2013 ). The flowers of T. diversifolia are visited by insects including butterflies and bees (Ponder et al., 2013).
Physiology and phenology
In tropical regions, T. diversifolia produces flowers and fruits throughout the year. Mature plants can produce 80,000 to 160,000 seeds annually. In China, it has been recorded flowering from September to January. In Australia, flowering can occur in spring, but it is mainly observed during autumn and early winter (from April to June). In India, flowering activity has been recorded from September to May (Davidse et al., 2018; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018; India Biodiversity Portal, 2018; Queensland Government, 2018).
Environmental requirements
T. diversifolia prefers to grow where mean annual temperatures range from 15°C to 31°C but it can tolerate temperatures from 12°C to 38°C. It prefers environments with a mean annual rainfall in the range from 1000 mm to 2000 mm although it tolerates rainfall from 700 mm to 2500 mm. This species is adapted to grow in a wide range of soil types including sandy, loamy and clay soils with a pH range of 6.1-7.8 pH. This species prefers open and sunny areas and can tolerate moderate drought events (Orwa et al., 2009; Useful Tropical Plants, 2018).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute minimum temperature | 12 | 38 |
| Mean annual temperature | 15 | 31 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall | ||
| Mean annual rainfall | 700 | 2500 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil drainage > free
Special soil tolerances > infertile
Soil texture > heavy
Soil texture
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil reaction > alkaline
List of Pests
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Cultural/amenity | Positive |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Impact: Economic
Tithonia diversifolia is a weed of crop fields. It also invades grazing lands reducing the pasture or forage available for domestic animals (Queensland Government, 2018).
Impact: Environmental
Tithonia diversifolia is an aggressive weed that quickly invades disturbed sites, open grounds, forests edges, riverbanks and disturbed secondary forests. Once established, it forms dense stands that outcompete and displace native vegetation and alter natural regeneration (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2016; I3N-Brasil, 2018; PIER, 2018; Queensland Government, 2018). In areas invaded by T. divesifolia, native plant species growing beneath and near this species are negatively impacted by allelopathic substances (Suzuki et al., 2017).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Impact outcomes
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Loss of medicinal resources
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Allelopathic
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Competition - smothering
Competition (unspecified)
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Hybridization
Rapid growth
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Tithonia diversifolia is often cultivated as a garden ornamental and hedge plant (Orwa et al., 2009; Lusweti et al. 2011). This species is also used as green manure, soil improver and for erosion control in agroforestry systems and as a fodder crop for livestock such as goats and cattle (Jama et al., 2000; Olabode et al., 2007; Pathoummalangsy and Preston, 2008; Orwa et al., 2009; Nguyen et al., 2010). The leaves are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of constipation, stomach pains, liver pains, indigestion and sore throats and as an antiviral (Cos et al., 2002; Chiang et al., 2004; Tona et al., 1998; Goffin et al., 2002).
T. diversifolia is known to contain sesquiterpene lactones and diterpenoids (Chagas-Paula et al., 2012), some of which have biological activities against insects such as termites. For this reason, it has been used as a natural insecticide (Adoyo et al., 1997; Mwine et al., 2011).
Uses List
Ornamental
Ornamental > Christmas tree
Ornamental > Cut flower
Ornamental > garden plant
Ornamental > Potted plant
Ornamental > Propagation material
Ornamental > Seed trade
Environmental > Boundary, barrier or support
Environmental > Erosion control or dune stabilization
Environmental > Soil conservation
Environmental > Soil improvement
Materials > Fertilizer
Materials > Green manure
Materials > Manure
Materials > Miscellaneous materials
Materials > Mulches
Materials > Pesticide
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Fodder/animal feed
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Forage
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical/mechanical control
Small infestations of T. diversifolia can be removed manually. Slashing can result in re-sprouting from uncut stumps (Lusweti et al., 2011).
Chemical control
Herbicides such as triclopyr, picloram, metsulfuron-methyl and 2,4-D are reportedly used to control T. diversifolia in Australia (Queensland Government, 2018).
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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