Vitex agnus-castus (chaste tree)
Datasheet Types: Host plant, Crop, Invasive species
Abstract
This datasheet on Vitex agnus-castus covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Vitex agnus-castus L.
- Preferred Common Name
- chaste tree
- Other Scientific Names
- Agnus-castus robusta (Lebas) Carrière
- Agnus-castus vulgaris Carrière
- Vitex agnus Stokes
- Vitex hybrida Moldenke
- Vitex integra Medik.
- Vitex latifolia Mill.
- Vitex lupinifolia Salisb.
- Vitex pseudonegundo (Hausskn.) Hand.-Mazz.
- Vitex robusta Lebas
- Vitex verticillata Lam.
- International Common Names
- EnglishAbraham's balmchasteberrychastetreelilac chastetreemonk's peppermonks peppertree
- Frencharbre chastegattilierpoivre sauvage
- GermanMönchspfeffer
- Local Common Names
- Cubaincienso japonésvencedor
- Dominican Republicmalaguetapimienta de Guineayerba de la suerteyerba luisa
- GermanyKeuschbaum
- Italyagnocasto
- Puerto Ricochencherenchesauzgatillo
- USATexas lilac
- EPPO code
- VIXAC (Vitex agnus-castus)
Pictures
Flowering habit
Vitex agnus-castus (lilac chastetree) Flowering habit. L'Ametlla de Mar, Catalonia. July 2011.
©Josep Gesti/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Inflorescence
Vitex agnus-castus (lilac chastetree); Inflorescence. el Baix Guinardó, Barcelona, Catalonia. October 2020.
©Teresa Grau Ros/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0
Flowers and foliage
Vitex agnus-castus (lilac chastetree); Flowers and foliage. October 2014.
©peganum/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0
Flowers and foliage
Vitex agnus-castus (lilac chastetree); Flowers and foliage. October 2014.
©peganum/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0
Flowering habit
Vitex agnus-castus (lilac chastetree); Flowering habit. Chicago Botanic Garden, Illinois, USA. September 2016.
©Krzysztof Ziarnek (Kenraiz)/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Flowering habit
Vitex agnus-castus (lilac chastetree) Flowering habit. Surrey, England. September 2016.
©Leonora (Ellie) Enking/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0
Inflorescence
Vitex agnus-castus (lilac chastetree); Inflorescence. Georgetown, Texas, USA. June 2020.
©Spencer (spencersloth)/via iNaturalist - CC BY 4.0
Fruiting habit
Vitex agnus-castus (lilac chastetree); Fruiting habit. Málaga, Spain. August 2016.
©Lies Van Rompaey/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0
Summary of Invasiveness
Vitex agnus-castus is a deciduous shrub or small tree native to the Mediterranean and western Asia, widely cultivated as an ornamental and for medicinal use. Once established, it often behaves as a weed and has the potential to grow in a wide range of climates and soil types. This species is tolerant to drought, salt drift and browsing (e.g. damage by deer). It produces large numbers of seeds and has high seedling recruitment rates and may form dense monospecific thickets.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The Lamiaceae consist of 236 genera and about 7280 species distributed worldwide. The genus Vitex comprises about 250 species occurring across tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions (Stevens, 2020). The name Vitex comes from the Latin ‘vieo’, meaning to weave which, according to Pliny was connected to its use in Roman basket weaving. The specific epithet agnus-castus comes from the Latin 'castitas' (chastity) and 'agnus' (lamb), the former in reference to its use to decrease sexual desire and promote chastity in women and celibacy in monks (Daniele et al., 2005; Rani and Sharma, 2013).
Plant Type
Perennial
Seed / spore propagated
Shrub
Vegetatively propagated
Woody
Tree
Description
The following description is from Flora of Pakistan (2020):
Erect shrub, 1-2 m high, sometimes up to 4 m high, whitish-tomentose, with obtusely quadrangular branches. Leaves palmately 5-7-foliolate, two extreme leaflets (especially in 7-foliolate leaves) much shorter and smaller than the others; leaflets usually lanceolate, (2-) 5-10 (-12) cm long, (4-) 10-15 (-20) mm broad, whitish-tomentose underneath, ± acuminate, subsessile to petiolulate, usually entire. Terminal inflorescence 10-20 cm long, subcylindrical, interrupted; cymes forming verticillaster, ± compact, sessile or subsessile, each usually 8-13 mm long. Flowers lilac or deep violet, 4 mm across. Calyx 3 mm long, 2 mm broad, campanulate, truncate, triangulate to obscurely toothed, persistent. Corolla 7-10 mm long, exceeding the calyx; lower lobes glabrous to slightly pubescent at the base. Drupe globose, 2-2.5 mm in diameter, exserted halfway above the slightly enlarged and expanded, persistent calyx, glabrous, 4-celled, with usually one seed in each cell.
Distribution
Vitex agnus-castus is native to the Mediterranean region of Europe and Northern Africa and western Asia. It has been introduced and can be found naturalized in North, Central and South America, the Caribbean and Hawaii (Funk et al., 2007; Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; PIER, 2018; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2020; POWO, 2020; USDA-ARS, 2020; USDA-NRCS, 2020).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
Risk of Introduction
The risk of new introductions of V. agnus-castus is high. This species is widely cultivated and commercialized as an ornamental and for its medicinal uses. Seeds and plants are available for sale online and also available in the horticultural trade (Gilman and Watson, 1994; PFAF, 2020; USDA-ARS, 2020).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Vitex agnus-castus spreads by seed. Plants produce on average 40,000 seeds/pound. Currently, the most important pathway of new introductions is intentional dispersal by humans. In cultivation, it is often propagated by cuttings (Gilman and Watson, 1994; White, 2013; India Biodiversity Portal, 2020).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Disturbance (pathway cause) | Grown in disturbed sites, along roadsides, etc. | Yes | Yes | |
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Escaped from gardens and invaded areas near cultivation | Yes | Yes | |
| Garden waste disposal (pathway cause) | Seeds and cuttings | Yes | Yes | |
| Horticulture (pathway cause) | Often cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | |
| Intentional release (pathway cause) | Often cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | |
| Internet sales (pathway cause) | Seeds for sale online | Yes | Yes | |
| Medicinal use (pathway cause) | Extensively used in traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | |
| Nursery trade (pathway cause) | Often cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | |
| Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Often cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | Yes | |
| Seed trade (pathway cause) | Seeds for sale online | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Seeds and cuttings | Yes | Yes | |
| Mail (pathway vector) | Seeds for sale online | Yes | Yes |
Habitat
Within its native distribution range, V. agnus-castus is widespread on riverbanks and in coastal thickets and shores along the Mediterranean Sea. It can also be found in damp ravines, woodlands, dry creek beds, disturbed sites and along roadsides (Gilman and Watson, 1994; White, 2013; Swearingen and Bargeron, 2016; Flora of Pakistan, 2020).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Littoral | Coastal areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
Chromosome numbers of 2n = 24 and 32 in different individuals of V. agnus-castus have been reported (Sharma and Mukhopadhyay, 1963).
Reproductive Biology
Vitex agnus-castus has bisexual flowers that are visited and pollinated by insects, mostly bees [Apidae] and butterflies [Lepidoptera] (Gilman and Watson, 1994; Hawkins and Robacker, 2019; India Biodiversity Portal, 2020).
Physiology and Phenology
In North America, V. agnus-castus blooms heavily in the spring and early summer and then sporadically throughout the summer and autumn (White, 2013; Swearingen and Bargeron, 2016). In Pakistan, flowers are produced from May to July (Flora of Pakistan, 2020). In India, flowers and fruits are produced from July to January (India Biodiversity Portal, 2020).
Environmental Requirements
Vitex agnus-castus prefers to grow in areas with full sunlight or partial shade. It is well adapted to a wide range of soil types including sand, loamy sand and clay with pH in the range 6-8. It also tolerates drought and salt spray. Although this species grows best in dry and moist habitats it does not tolerate wet conditions; plants can suffer from dieback and root rot in muddy or too humid soils (Gilman and Watson, 1994; Flora of Pakistan, 2020).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated | |
| BS - Steppe climate | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | Tolerated | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Preferred | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Preferred | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Preferred |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 45 | 20 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Mean annual temperature | 10 | 28 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall | ||
| Mean annual rainfall | 350 | 1000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Winter
Bimodal
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > heavy
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil reaction > alkaline
Soil drainage > free
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
Vitex agnus-castus is the preferred host for Hyalesthes obsoletus (Homoptera: Cixiidae) a polyphagous plant hopper that is a vector of the black wood disease and yellow disease of wine grapes (Vitis vinifera) in Europe and the Middle East (Sharon et al., 2005).
In cultivation, V. agnus-castus is sometimes affected by thrips (Thysanoptera) (Gilman and Watson, 1994).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hyalesthes obsoletus | Herbivore | Whole plant | not specific |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Cultural/amenity | Positive |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
| Human health | Positive |
Impact: Environmental
Vitex agnus-castus is an invasive weed with the potential to form dense monospecific thickets that displace native vegetation. Currently, it is listed as invasive in the United States (mostly across southwestern states), Anguilla and Cuba (Gilman and Watson, 1994; Connor, 2008; Oviedo Prieto and González-Oliva, 2015; Swearingen and Bargeron, 2016; USDA-NRCS, 2020). In Texas, this species is showing invasive tendencies in areas where it has been planted extensively in landscaping; it can now be found in limestone outcrops and dry creek beds throughout Central Texas (Swearingen and Bargeron, 2016). It also crowds out native plants, particularly in riparian areas with invasions recorded in Austin nature preserves (Austin Invasive Plants Management, 2013).
The desirable features often cited by nurseries and gardeners indicate that the invasive potential for this plant may be high. These features include: the ability to grow in any soil, surviving six years of drought unattended, hardly affected by pests or diseases and tolerant of salt drift. V. agnus-castus also readily seeds out into surrounding areas (Swearingen and Bargeron, 2016).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Gregarious
Reproduces asexually
Impact outcomes
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Monoculture formation
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission
Rapid growth
Rooting
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Vitex agnus-castus has been used in traditional medicine since ancient Greek and Roman times. Since the 4th century BC, this species has been used for the treatment of female reproductive disorders, injuries and inflammation. Currently, fruit extracts are commercialized for the treatment of many female conditions such as menstrual disorders, premenstrual syndrome, acne, menopause and disrupted lactation (Wuttke et al., 2003; Daniele et al., 2005; Mitscher, 2007; Rani and Sharma, 2013). The therapeutic properties and potential nutraceutical applications of V. agnus-castus have been reviewed by Souto et al. (2020).
Essential oils are extracted from the flowers of V. agnus-castus and used to make perfumes and insect repellent, while young branches are used to make baskets. A yellow dye is obtained from the leaves, seeds and roots. The fruit is used as a condiment - it is a pepper substitute and the aromatic leaves are also used as a spice (PFAF, 2020). Leaves and fruits are ground and sprinkled over woollen fabrics to prevent moth infestations (Baytop, 1984). CO2 extracts of the seeds have been shown to repel Ixodes ricinus, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, mosquitoes, biting flies and fleas in animals and humans for at least 6 h (Mehlhorn et al., 2005).
Vitex agnus-castus is cultivated as an ornamental plant and for honey production. It produces showy and fragrant panicles of lavender flowers that are quite attractive to butterflies [Lepidoptera] and bees [Apidae] (Gilman and Watson, 1994).
Vitex agnus-castus can also be used as a biological control agent - it is planted around vineyards to trap Hyalesthes obsoletus, a vector of diseases on grapevines [Vitis vinifera] (Sharon et al., 2005). Maintenance of V. agnus-castus plants close to crop fields has been recommended to serve as reservoirs of parasitoids of aphids that infest Citrus sinensis (Kavallieratos et al., 2008).
Uses List
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Environmental > Amenity
Materials > Baskets
Materials > Dyestuffs
Materials > Essential oils
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Human food and beverage > Honey/honey flora
Human food and beverage > Spices and culinary herbs
Ornamental > garden plant
Ornamental > Seed trade
Environmental > Biological control
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Veterinary
Environmental > Landscape improvement
Environmental > Host of pest
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Removal of seedlings by hand, cutting trees to stumps and removal of sprouts as they appear are some of the measures recommended for the control of V. agnus-castus (Austin Invasive Plants Management, 2013).
.png)
References
Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., Strong, M. T., 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies.Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
Anita Rani, Anupam Sharma, 2013. The genus Vitex: a review.Pharmacognosy Reviews, 7(14) 188-198.
Austin Invasive Plants Management, 2013. Central Texas Invasive Plants. Austin, Texas, USA: Watershed Protection Department. 62 pp. http://www.austintexas.gov/sites/default/files/files/Watershed/invasive/2013_Invasives_guide_small.pdf
Baytop, T., 1984. Treatment with plants in Turkey (in Turkish). Publication No 3255Istanbul, Turkey: Istanbul University.
Connor, RA, 2008. Anguilla Invasive Species Strategy (draft). http://www.gov.ai/documents/Anguilla%20Invasive%20Species%20Strategy%202008%20(2).pdf
Daniele, C., Coon, J. T., Pittler, M. H., Ernst, E., 2005. Vitex agnus castus: a systematic review of adverse events. Drug Safety, 28(4) 319-332.
Flora of Pakistan, 2020. Flora of Pakistan/Pakistan Plant Database (PPD). Tropicos website. In: Flora of Pakistan/Pakistan Plant Database (PPD). Tropicos website. St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan
Funk, V., Hollowell, T., Berry, P., Kelloff, C., Alexander, S. N., 2007. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, Washington, USA: Department of Systematic Biology - Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. 55 584 pp.
Gilman, E. F., Watson, D. G., 1994. Vitex agnus-castus – chastetree. Fact Sheet ST-664. Gainesville, Florida, USA: Environmental Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative Extension and University of Florida. 3 pp. https://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/database/documents/pdf/tree_fact_sheets/vitagnb.pdf
Hawkins, S. M., Robacker, C. D., 2019. Attractiveness of species of Vitex (Chastetree) to pollinators.Journal of Environmental Horticulture, 37(1) 24-29.
India Biodiversity Portal, 2020. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. In: Online Portal of India Biodiversity. http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list
Kavallieratos, N. G., Tomanović, Ž., Starý, P., Emmanouel, N. E., 2008. Vitex agnus castus and Euphorbia characias ssp. wulfenii as reservoirs of aphid parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiinae).Florida Entomologist, 91(2) 179-191.
Mehlhorn, H., Schmahl, G., Schmidt, J., 2005. Extract of the seeds of the plant Vitex agnus castus proven to be highly efficacious as a repellent against ticks, fleas, mosquitoes and biting flies.Parasitology Research, 95(5) 363-365.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2020. Tropicos database. In: Tropicos database. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
Mitscher, L. A., 2007. Traditional medicines. In: Comprehensive Medicinal Chemistry II, Volume 1, [ed. by Taylor, J. B., Triggle, D. J.]. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. 405-430. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B008045044X000122)
Oviedo Prieto, R., González-Oliva, L., 2015. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2015. (Lista nacional de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2015). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba., 9Special Issue No. 21-88. http://repositorio.geotech.cu/jspui/bitstream/1234/1476/4/Lista%20nacional%20de%20plantas%20invasoras%20de%20Cuba-2015.pdf
PFAF, 2020. Plants For A Future Database. In: Plants For A Future Database. Dawlish, UK: Plants For A Future. http://www.pfaf.org/USER/Default.aspx
PIER, 2018. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. In: Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk.Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
POWO, 2020. Plants of the World Online. In: Plants of the World Online. London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org
Sharma, A. K., Mukhopadhyay, S., 1963. Cytotaxonomic investigation with the aid of an improved method on the family Verbenaceae with special reference to the lines of evolution. Journal of Genetics, 58(3) 358-386.
Sharon, R., Soroker, V., Wesley, S. D., Zahavi, T., Harari, A., Weintraub, P. G., 2005. Vitex agnus-castus is a preferred host plant for Hyalesthes obsoletus.Journal of Chemical Ecology, 31(5) 1051-1063.
Souto, E. B., Durazzo, A., Nazhand, A., Lucarini, M., Zaccardelli, M., Souto, S. B., Silva, A. M., Severino, P., Novellino, E., Santini, A., 2020. Vitex agnus-castus L.: main features and nutraceutical perspectives.Forests, 11(7)
Stevens, P. F., 2020. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14. In: Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 14. St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/
Swearingen, J., Bargeron, C., 2016. Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States. In: Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States.Tifton, Georgia, USA: University of Georgia Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/
USDA-ARS, 2020. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. In: Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
USDA-NRCS, 2020. The PLANTS Database. In: The PLANTS Database. Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: National Plant Data Team. https://plants.sc.egov.usda.gov
White, MR, 2013. Invasive plants and weeds of the National Forests and Grasslands in the Southwestern Region. MR-R3-16-6 [ed. by White, MR]. Springerville, Arizona, USA: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Southwestern Region. xiv + 227 pp. https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprd3802006.pdf
Wuttke, W., Jarry, H., Christoffel, V., Spengler, B., Seidlová-Wuttke, D., 2003. Chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) - pharmacology and clinical indications.Phytomedicine, 10(4) 348-357.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
Copyright © CABI. CABI is a registered EU trademark. This article is published under a Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
History
Published online: 7 June 2020
Language
English
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
SCITE_
Citations
Export citation
Select the format you want to export the citations of this publication.
EXPORT CITATIONSExport Citation
View Options
View options
Login Options
Check if you access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.