Datasheet

Enhanced

22 November 2023

Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur)

Author: Julissa Rojas-SandovalAuthors Info & Affiliations

Publication: CABI Compendium

56864

https://doi.org/10.1079/cabicompendium.56864

Datasheet Types: Pest, Invasive species, Host plant

PDF/EPUB

Abstract

This datasheet on Xanthium strumarium covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name: Xanthium strumarium L.
Preferred Common Name: common cocklebur
Other Scientific Names: Xanthium abyssinicum Wallr.; Xanthium acerosum Greene; Xanthium acutilobum Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium acutum Greene; Xanthium affine Greene; Xanthium americanum Walt.; Xanthium arcuatum Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium arenarium Lasch; Xanthium aridum St.John; Xanthium barcinonense Sennen; Xanthium brevirostre Wallr.; Xanthium bubalocarpon Bush; Xanthium calvum Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium campestre Greene; Xanthium cenchroides Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium chasei Fernald; Xanthium chinense Mill.; Xanthium cloessplateaum D.Z.Ma; Xanthium commune Britton; Xanthium cordifolium Stokes; Xanthium crassifolium Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium cuneatum Moench; Xanthium curvescens Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium cylindraceum Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium cylindricum Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium decalvatum Widder; Xanthium discolor Wallr.; Xanthium echinatum Murray; Xanthium echinellum Greene ex Rydb.; Xanthium fuscescens Jord. & Fourr.; Xanthium glabratum (DC.) Britton; Xanthium glanduliferum Greene; Xanthium globosum C.Shull; Xanthium homothalamum Spreng.; Xanthium indicum DC.; Xanthium inflexum Mack. & Bush; Xanthium japonicum Widder; Xanthium leptocarpum Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium longirostre Wallr.; Xanthium macounii Britton; Xanthium mongolicum Kitag.; Xanthium nigri Ces.; Xanthium occidentale Bertol.; Xanthium oligacanthum Piper; Xanthium oviforme Wallr.; Xanthium riparium Lasché; Xanthium ripicola J. Holub; Xanthium roxburghii Wallr.; Xanthium speciosum Kearney; Xanthium sphaerocephalum Salzm. ex Ball; Xanthium varians Greene; Xanthium wootonii Cockerell
International Common Names: English
beach cocklebur
Canada cocklebur
clotbur
cocklebur
ditchbur
donkey burr
donkeyburr
European cockle bur
heartleaf
large cocklebur
rough cocklebur
sheep burr
woolgarie bur; Spanish
arrancamoños
bardana
bardana menor
cachurrera
cadillo
cardo garbancero
chayotillo
gatillo
higueruela; French
glouteron
lampourde glouteron; Chinese
cang
cang er
Local Common Names: Australia
Noogoora bur
sheep bur; Cuba
guizazo de caballos; Czech Republic
řepeň durkoman; Dominican Republic
cadillo de gato
cadillo de tres pies
gatico; Estonia
pugu-väärtakjas; Germany
amerikanische Spitzklette
gemeine Spitzklette
gewöhnliche Spitzklette
Kropfspitzklette
östliche Spitzklette; India
adhisishi
bada gokhru bhakra
chota dhatura
ghaghra
sansakhuli; Italy
lappola comune
nappola minore; Japan
onamomi; Lesser Antilles
burrweed
zaydri couchou; Lithuania
paprastasis dagišius; Malaysia
buah anjang; Nepal
bhainse kuro
bhende kuro; Netherlands
late stekelnoot
ongedoornde stekelnoot; Pakistan
puth kando; Poland
rzepień pospolity; Portugal
amor-de-hortelão
bardana-menor
carrapicho-de-carneiro
carrapicho-grande; South Africa
kankerroos
large cocklebur; Taiwan
tsai-er; Thailand
kachab; Turkey
koca pıtrak
siraco out; USA
heart-leaf cocklebur

Pictures

Fruiting habit of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Lyon, Nevada, USA. January 2015. — Habit
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Fruiting habit. Lyon, Nevada, USA. January 2015.
©James D. Morefield (2011)/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Young plant of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur) with its fruit. — Fruit
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Fruit on young plant. Launiupoko, Maui, Hawaii. February 2007.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Fruits of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Launiupoko, Maui, Hawaii. March 2009. — Fruit
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Fruits. Launiupoko, Maui, Hawaii. March 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Fruit of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Launiupoko, Maui, Hawaii. March 2009. — Fruit
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Fruit. Launiupoko, Maui, Hawaii. March 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Habit of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Kondivli, Maharashtra, India. December 2021. — Habit
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Habit. Kondivli, Maharashtra, India. December 2021.
©Dinesh Valke/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Flowers of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur) with developing fruits. Chakan, Maharashtra, India. November 2011. — Flowers
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Flowers with developing fruits. Chakan, Maharashtra, India. November 2011.
©Dinesh Valke/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Habit of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Cardwell, Montana, USA. September 2016. — Habit
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Habit. Cardwell, Montana, USA. September 2016.
©Matt Lavin/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Immature fruit of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Cardwell, Montana, USA. September 2016. — Fruit
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Immature fruit. Cardwell, Montana, USA. September 2016.
©Matt Lavin/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Fruiting habit of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Hobble Creek, Utah, USA. January 2015. — Habit
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Fruiting habit. Hobble Creek, Utah, USA. January 2015.
©Andrey Zharkikh/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0

Habit of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Yolo Bypass Wildlife Area, California, USA. July 2015. — Habit
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Habit. Yolo Bypass Wildlife Area, California, USA. July 2015.
©Matt Lavin/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Mature seedpods of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Vasai, Maharashtra, India. February 2023. — Seedpod
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Mature seedpods. Vasai, Maharashtra, India. February 2023.
©Dinesh Valke/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0

Seedpod of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Lua Kealialalo, Kahoolawe, Hawaii. December 2008. — Seedpod
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Seedpod. Lua Kealialalo, Kahoolawe, Hawaii. December 2008.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Seedlings of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Lua Kealialalo, Kahoolawe, Hawaii. December 2008. — Seedlings
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Many seedlings. Lua Kealialalo, Kahoolawe, Hawaii. December 2008.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Seedlings of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur) in wetland. Lua Kealialalo, Kahoolawe, Hawaii. December 2008. — Seedling
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Seedlings in wetland. Lua Kealialalo, Kahoolawe, Hawaii. December 2008.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Seedling of Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur). Lua Kealialalo, Kahoolawe, Hawaii. February 2008. — Seedling
Xanthium strumarium (common cocklebur); Seedling. Lua Kealialalo, Kahoolawe, Hawaii. February 2008.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0

Summary of Invasiveness

Xanthium strumarium is a cosmopolitan annual herb that has become a widespread agricultural and environmental weed. Considered one of the world’s worst weeds, this species produces large numbers of seeds that are easily spread, due to their ability to float and to “hitchhike” on humans and animals. Once established, X. strumarium can quickly become the dominant species in an area because of its prolific seed production and high germination and survival rates. It is very successful in invading disturbed sites, wastelands, roadsides, cultivated lands, riverbanks, grasslands, beaches and coastal thickets. It can occur scattered but can also form dense stands that displace native vegetation, inhibit the germination and growth of other plant species, and alter natural regeneration processes.

Taxonomic Tree

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The genus Xanthium comprises annual herbs that often behave as weeds. Species within this genus are characterized by the presence of peculiar spiny female capitula or burs. Since Linnaeus described the first two species of Xanthium in 1753 (X. strumarium L. and X. spinosum L.), a large number of specific epithets have been given for the species in this genus. For example, Millspaugh and Sherff (1919) in their revision of North American Xanthium listed 21 species. However, other taxonomists have reduced the number of species to two or three (Cronquist, 1945; Strother, 2006). Löve and Dansereau (1959) in their revision recognized only two species: X. strumarium and X. spinosum. Additionally, these authors recognized two infraspecific taxa within X. strumarium: X. strumarium subsp. strumarium (native to the Old World) and X. strumarium subsp. cavanillesii (native to the Americas). In the most recent revision of the genus using molecular and phylogenetic analyses, Tomasello (2018) has delimited the genus Xanthium to five species.

Plant Type

Annual

Seed / spore propagated

Broadleaved

Herbaceous

Description

The following description is from Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018):

Herbs, annual, 20-120 cm; nodal spines absent. Petiole 3.5-10 cm not winged; median cauline leaves deltate-ovate, 9-25 cm, papery, densely scabrid on both surfaces, base shallowly cordate to broadly cuneate, margin irregularly dentate, often obsoletely 3-lobed, apex acute. Capitula monoecious. Male capitula in terminal umbels; phyllaries 1-seriate, oblong-lanceolate, ca. 2.2 mm; outer paleae oblong-lanceolate, inner paleae lanceolate, ca. 2.2 mm; corolla white, tubular, ca. 2.5 mm, 5-dentate. Female capitula axillary; phyllaries 1-seriate, oblong-lanceolate, ca. 3 mm, inner bracts connate with outer paleae. Burs sessile, oblong, ellipsoid, or ovoid, 10-18 × 6-12 mm, densely puberulent, 2-beaked.

Distribution

The native distribution range of X. strumarium is still unclear. While some authors consider this species as probably having originated in North America (Strother, 2006; USDA-NRCS, 2018), others consider it as native to the Old World, as supported by the numerous fossil records in Europe dating all the way back to the last glacial period (Löve, 1975; Tomasello, 2018). Currently, X. strumarium has a pantropical distribution and can be found widely naturalized in both the Old and New Worlds (USDA-ARS, 2018).

Distribution Map

Distribution Table

Risk of Introduction

Xanthium strumarium has all the characteristics which favour its ability to inhabit a range of habitats: an effective dispersal mechanism, tolerance of a wide variety of soil types, high seed output and viability and germination under varied environments, rapid seedling growth and a well-developed root system. The traits of this species that contribute to its widespread geographic and environmental distribution are reviewed by Kaul (1961). As this species has an almost worldwide distribution, having been introduced to so many countries, it is likely to spread further.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Xanthium strumarium spreads by seed. Each plant can produce 500 to 5400 burs (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983). The spiny burs are readily dispersed by adhering to animal fur, human clothing and shoes, and as a contaminant of wool, mud, hay bales, agricultural products and seed pastures. Burs are buoyant and can float for up to 30 days, thus being easily dispersed to beaches and pastures subject to flooding. Viability of seeds buried in the soil does not generally exceed 5 years (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983).

Pathway Causes

Pathway cause	Notes	Long distance	Local	References
Crop production (pathway cause)	Noxious weed in agriculture	Yes	Yes	Holm et al. (1977)
Disturbance (pathway cause)	Common weed in disturbed sites, roadsides, pastures, etc	Yes	Yes	Queensland Government (2018)
Hitchhiker (pathway cause)	Burs are often dispersed adhered to human clothing, shoes, animal fur and as a contaminant in agricultural products	Yes	Yes	Weaver and Lechowicz (1983)
Medicinal use (pathway cause)	Used in traditional medicine in China, India	Yes	Yes	Mitch (1987), Talakal et al. (1995)

Pathway Vectors

Pathway vector	Notes	Long distance	Local	References
Clothing, footwear and possessions (pathway vector)	Burs as hitchhikers	Yes	Yes	Weaver and Lechowicz (1983)
Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector)	Burs as contaminant and/or hitchhikers	Yes	Yes	Weaver and Lechowicz (1983)
Machinery and equipment (pathway vector)	Burs as contaminant and/or hitchhikers	Yes	Yes	Weaver and Lechowicz (1983)
Mulch, straw, baskets and sod (pathway vector)	Burs as contaminant and/or hitchhikers	Yes	Yes	Weaver and Lechowicz (1983)
Livestock (pathway vector)	Burs adhere to hair and fur	Yes	Yes	Weaver and Lechowicz (1983)
Soil, sand and gravel (pathway vector)	Burs as contaminant	Yes	Yes	Weaver and Lechowicz (1983)
Land vehicles (pathway vector)	Burs as contaminant	Yes	Yes	Weaver and Lechowicz (1983)
Water (pathway vector)	Burs are buoyant and float for up to 30 days	Yes	Yes	Pitcher (2001)
Wind (pathway vector)		Yes	Yes	Weaver and Lechowicz (1983)

Hosts/Species Affected

Xanthium strumarium is a weed of many economically important crops. It is extremely competitive in crops such as soyabean, cotton and peanut and can also affect alfalfa, wheat, pepper, bean, maize, tomato and sorghum plantations as well as orchards and vineyards. X. strumarium also serves as a host for a number of pathogens and pests affecting crops (Villaseñor and Espinosa, 1998; Vibrans, 2009).

Host Plants and Other Plants Affected

Host	Family	Host status	References
Allium cepa (onion)	Liliaceae	Unknown	Tahira and Khan (2017)
Arachis hypogaea (groundnut)	Fabaceae	Main	Nigussie et al. (2017)
Beta vulgaris (beetroot)	Chenopodiaceae	Main
Brassica carinata (African cabbage)	Brassicaceae	Unknown	Nigussie et al. (2017)
Capsicum spp.		Main
Chrysanthemum (daisy)	Asteraceae	Unknown	Gobatto et al. (2019)
Cicer arietinum (chickpea)	Fabaceae	Unknown	Nigussie et al. (2017)
Citrus	Rutaceae	Unknown	Celepcİ et al. (2017)
Colocasia esculenta (taro)	Araceae	Other
Eragrostis tef (teff)	Poaceae	Unknown	Nigussie et al. (2017)
Glycine max (soyabean)	Fabaceae	Main	Oh et al. (2007)
Gossypium (cotton)	Malvaceae	Unknown	Bükün (2005)
Gossypium hirsutum (Bourbon cotton)	Malvaceae	Main
Helianthus annuus (sunflower)	Asteraceae	Other	Milanova et al. (2007), Moskova et al. (2018)
Hordeum vulgare (barley)	Poaceae	Unknown	Nigussie et al. (2017)
Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato)	Convolvulaceae	Unknown	Nigussie et al. (2017)
Lens culinaris		Unknown	Nigussie et al. (2017)
Oryza sativa (rice)	Poaceae	Other
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean)	Fabaceae	Other	Nigussie et al. (2017)
Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane)	Poaceae	Main	Khan et al. (2012)
Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)	Solanaceae	Main	Bayram et al. (2015), Saeed and Ali (2020)
Solanum melongena (aubergine)	Solanaceae	Unknown	Altınok (2013)
Sorghum bicolor (sorghum)	Poaceae	Main
Spinacia oleracea (spinach)	Chenopodiaceae	Unknown	Fotopoulos et al. (2011)
Triticum aestivum (wheat)	Poaceae	Other	Hassannejad and Ghafarbi (2013), Hassannejad et al. (2014), Shah et al. (2014), Fazal and Muhammad (2015), Nigussie et al. (2017)
Zea mays (maize)	Poaceae	Main	Shah and Khan (2006), Milanova et al. (2007), Oh et al. (2007), Zeeshan et al. (2016), Nigussie et al. (2017)

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

Xanthium strumarium resembles X. spinosum, but these two species can be distinguished by the following traits (Queensland Government, 2018):

Xanthium strumarium has relatively large leaves (up to 20 cm long) that are very broad (up to 18 cm across) and often have three or five lobes with irregularly toothed margins. Both leaf surfaces are green in colour and rough to the touch (i.e. scabrous). Its stems do not bear any spines and its relatively large fruit (7-20 mm long) are topped with two distinct 'beaks' (about 4 mm long).

Xanthium spinosum has small to moderately-sized leaves (2-10 cm long) that are relatively narrow (6-30 mm wide) and usually have three irregular lobes. These leaves have dark green upper surfaces and whitish coloured undersides. Its stems bear three-pronged spines near the leaf bases and its moderately-sized fruit (8-15 mm long) are sometimes topped with two small 'beaks' (1-2 mm long).

Habitat

Xanthium strumarium often grows in moist sandy pits, riverbanks, grasslands, along beaches, coastal dunes, watercourses and floodplains, and has expanded to open environments created by human activities, such as cultivated fields, roadsides, wastelands, pastures and ruderal places. It thrives in damp or seasonally wet alkaline soils from near sea level to altitudes of 2000 m (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983; Pitcher, 2001; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018). It is most often found in the temperate zone, but also occurs in subtropical and Mediterranean climates. It prefers open communities and will disappear if shaded or crowded (Kaul, 1971). It is not common in mountainous regions (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983).

Habitat List

Category	Sub category	Habitat	Presence	Status
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Disturbed areas	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Rail / roadsides	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Urban / peri-urban areas	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details	Natural
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details	Natural
Littoral		Coastal areas	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Littoral		Coastal dunes	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Littoral		Coastal dunes	Present, no further details	Natural
Littoral		Coastal dunes	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Freshwater		Lakes	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Lakes	Present, no further details	Natural
Freshwater		Lakes	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Freshwater		Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Natural
Freshwater		Reservoirs	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Freshwater		Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Natural
Freshwater		Rivers / streams	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural
Freshwater		Ponds	Present, no further details	Harmful (pest or invasive)
Freshwater		Ponds	Present, no further details	Natural
Freshwater		Ponds	Present, no further details	Productive/non-natural

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

All Xanthium taxa are tetraploid with a chromosome number of 2n = 36 (Löve and Dansereau, 1959). The related species X. spinosum is more homogeneous throughout its range than X. strumarium. Hybrids between the two species can occur (Löve, 1975).

Reproductive Biology

Xanthium strumarium is a monoecious, wind-pollinated, self-compatible and predominately self-pollinated species. The staminate heads are located above the pistillate heads on the main axis and side shoots, an arrangement favouring inbreeding (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983; Pitcher, 2001).

Physiology and Phenology

Xanthium strumarium has the C3 photosynthetic pathway (Sharkey and Raschke, 1981). In China, this species has been recorded flowering during July and August and fruiting in September and October (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018). In North America, plants produce flowers and fruits from July to October (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2018). In Australia, flowering occurs from summer through to early autumn (Queensland Government, 2018).

Xanthium strumarium produces two types of seeds (somatic polymorphism). Each bur contains two seeds, with the smaller one often pushed upwards toward the beaked end of the fruit. The lower seed has a shorter dormant period and germinates first. This appears to be a strategy to assure germination in the event the immediate environment happens to be unsuitable (Redosevich and Holt, 1984; Pitcher, 2001). In the northern hemisphere, seed germination and emergence generally occur in late spring or early summer and light is not required for germination (Stoller and Wax, 1974).

Longevity

Xanthium strumarium is an annual herbaceous species (USDA-NRCS, 2018). It overwinters as seed on or below the surface of the soil. Viability of seeds buried in the soil does not exceed 5 years (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983).

Population Size and Structure

Two types of populations have been described for X. strumarium (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983): (1) populations located along shores or watercourses which tend to be small, ephemeral, and homogeneous with seed dispersal by wind and water and (2) populations in ruderal habitats, agricultural fields or waste areas that tend to be large, dense and heterogeneous with tall, vigorous plants producing large numbers of seeds. Seed dispersal in these areas is primarily the result of human activities. Both types of populations, however, occupy unstable habitats and are continually shifting to newly disturbed areas (Pitcher, 2001).

Environmental Requirements

Xanthium strumarium tolerates a wide variety of soil types and textures and a soil pH range of 5.2- 8.0, as well as frequent flooding and saline conditions (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983).

Climate

Climate type	Description	Preferred or tolerated
Af - Tropical rainforest climate	> 60mm precipitation per month	Tolerated
Am - Tropical monsoon climate	Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25]))	Tolerated
As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])	Tolerated
Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate	< 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25])	Tolerated
BS - Steppe climate	> 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation	Preferred
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers	Preferred
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)	Preferred
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year	Preferred
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer	Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers)	Tolerated

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude lower (m)	Altitude upper (m)
55	45

Rainfall Regime

Summer

Winter

Bimodal

Uniform

Soil Tolerances

Soil texture > Light

Soil texture > Medium

Soil texture > Heavy

Soil reaction > Acid

Soil reaction > Neutral

Soil reaction > Alkaline

Soil drainage > Seasonally waterlogged

Special soil tolerances > Saline

List of Pests

Notes on Natural Enemies

Xanthium strumarium is a host of numerous important pests and diseases, including the fungi Alternaria helianthi [Alternariaster helianthi], Rhizoctonia solani [Thanatephorus cucumeris] and Puccinia xanthii, and the leafminer, Liriomyza helianthi (Julien et al., 1979; Spencer and Steyskal, 1986; Abbas and Barrentine, 1995; Singh et al., 2012).

A literature review of insect pests associated with X. strumarium in different parts of the world and in Southern California was carried out by Hilgendorf and Goeden (1982; 1983).

Natural enemies

Natural enemy	Type	Life stages	Specificity	References
Alternaria zinniae (leaf spot of zinnia)	Pathogen		not specific	Nehl and Brown (2000)
Alternariaster helianthi (leaf blight of sunflower)	Pathogen		not specific	Abbas and Barrentine (1995)
Colletotrichum coccodes (black dot of potato)	Pathogen		not specific
Colletotrichum dematium (leaf spot)	Pathogen		not specific
Epiblema strenuana (ragweed borer)	Herbivore	Plants\|Stems	not specific	Kelly (1931)
Euaresta aequalis	Herbivore	Plants\|Seeds	not specific	Hare and Futuyma (1978)
Eucosma imbridana	Herbivore	Plants\|Seeds	not specific	Hare and Futuyma (1978)
Gloeosporium orbiculare	Pathogen		not specific
Liriomyza helianthi	Herbivore	Plants\|Leaves	not specific	Spencer and Steyskal (1986)
Mecas cana saturnina	Herbivore		not specific	Wapshere (1974a)
Nupserha vexator	Herbivore	Plants\|Stems	not specific	Wapshere (1974a)
Oedopa sp.	Herbivore	Plants\|Roots	to genus	Hilgendorf and Goeden (1983)
Phyllachora canaliculata	Pathogen		not specific
Protomyces gravidus (biocontrol of ragweed)	Pathogen		not specific	Cartwright and Templeton (1988)
Puccinia xanthii	Pathogen	Plants\|Leaves Plants\|Stems	not specific	Conners (1967)
Thanatephorus cucumeris (many names, depending on host)	Pathogen	Plants\|Leaves	not specific	Singh et al. (2012)
Zygogramma bicolorata (Mexican beetle)	Herbivore	Plants\|Growing point Plants\|Leaves Plants\|Inflorescence	not specific	Bhute (2012)

Impact Summary

Category	Impact
Cultural/amenity	Negative
Economic/livelihood	Negative
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative
Human health	Negative

Impact

Xanthium strumarium is a major weed of row crops such as soyabeans, cotton, maize and groundnuts in many parts of the world, including North America, southern Europe, the Middle East, South Africa, India and Japan. In 1995, it ranked as the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh most troublesome weed in soyabean, cotton, maize and groundnut, respectively, across 10 southern states in the USA. Between 1974 and 1995, X. strumarium decreased in importance in maize, soyabean and groundnuts in the southern USA, but increased in cotton (Webster and Coble, 1997). These rankings were based on distribution, abundance and difficulty of control.

In soyabeans, cocklebur has been reported to cause the highest reductions in yield of all annual weeds in both northern and southern production areas of the USA (Stoller et al., 1987). Soyabean yield losses are estimated at 10 to 16% for 0.5 plants of X. strumarium per m of row, 65% for 4 plants and 80% for over 10 plants per m of row, for weeds emerging at the same time as the crop (Stoller et al., 1987; Rushing and Oliver, 1998). Similar yield losses from cocklebur were reported in Ontario, Canada (Weaver, 1991). In Italy, Sartorato et al. (1996) recommended an economic threshold of only 0.05 plants of X. strumarium per square m in soyabeans. In addition to direct yield losses through competition, infestations of X. strumarium decrease soyabean seed quality and harvesting efficiency. One cocklebur per m of row was shown to cause a 7.2% increase in foreign material in harvested soyabeans, a 5.2% increase in seed moisture content, decreased test weight by 58.6 g/L seed, and reduced combine speed (Ellis et al., 1998). The authors recommended use of a pre-harvest desiccant when cocklebur densities exceeded 0.5 plants per m of row.

In cotton in the USA, seed yield losses of 60 to 90 kg/ha (approximately 5%) have been reported from cocklebur growing at a density of one plant per 15 m of row in Mississippi (Snipes et al., 1982). Cotton yield losses from one plant of X. strumarium per 3 m of row varied from 6 to 27% in North Carolina (Byrd and Coble, 1991). The critical period for cocklebur in cotton lasted from 2 to 10 weeks after cotton emergence (Snipes et al., 1987).

In groundnuts, cocklebur has been reported to cause yield losses of 31-39% at a density of 0.5 plants and 88% at 4 plants per m of row in the southern USA (Royal et al., 1997a, b). Cocklebur densities higher than 1 plant per 2 m of row reduced deposition of the fungicide chlorothalonil by 34% (Royal et al., 1997b).

The economic impact of X. strumarium in maize is somewhat lower than for soyabeans, cotton and groundnuts. Yields of maize in Illinois, USA have been reported to decrease by 10% at 1 cocklebur per m of row, to a maximum yield loss of 27% at a density of 4.7 cockleburs per m of row (Beckett et al., 1988).

Infestations of X. strumarium can also cause significant yield losses in horticultural row crops (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983). In snap beans, yield losses of 5 to 50% were reported for densities of X. strumarium ranging from 0.5 to 8 per square m (Neary and Majek, 1990).

Xanthium strumarium also has a detrimental impact on livestock production which has been best documented in Australia, where it is abundant in sheep-grazing regions in the eastern half of the continent in Queensland and New South Wales (Wapshere, 1974b; Hocking and Liddle, 1986). The burs lodge in animal hair and sheep wool, and are difficult to remove when the wool is processed after shearing. Contaminated wool requires special treatment and may have a price penalty of 25% or more (Wapshere, 1974b). The prickly burs can cause considerable discomfort to animals by clinging to hair on the legs and matting the tails and manes of horses.

Xanthium strumarium also has an economic impact in pastures, where cattle, sheep and pigs may be poisoned by eating young plants. The cotyledons contain a toxic compound, carboxyatractyloside, which is absent in older plants (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1982; Hocking and Liddle, 1986; Martin et al., 1992). Symptoms include vomiting, muscular spasms, liver degeneration and occasionally death.

Cocklebur serves as a host for a number of pathogens of crops. Sunflowers have been reported to be damaged by the rust Puccinia xanthii, commonly found on cocklebur, and by alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria helianthi), also found on cocklebur in North America (Hocking and Liddle, 1986). Cocklebur is reported to be a host for Sclerotinia minor and S. sclerotiorum which contaminate soyabean and discolour seed and result in a lowered price (Hocking and Liddle, 1986). X. strumarium is also an alternate host for the insect Spilosoma obliqua (Lepidoptera) which attacks Egyptian clover in India (Dhaliwal, 1993), and for Colletotrichum capsici, which causes anthracnose on tomato fruit and cotton seedlings in the USA (Mclean and Roy, 1991).

The Xanthium genus is closely related to the Ambrosia (ragweed) genus, and X. strumarium produces large amounts of highly antigenic pollen (Reddi et al., 1980). The glandular hairs on the leaves and stem secrete a substance which causes contact dermititis in allergic individuals (King, 1966).

Impact: Economic

Xanthium strumarium is a major weed of crops in many parts of the world where it greatly reduces yield and interferes with combine harvesting. It is a strong competitor for nutrients and water. It is ranked as one of the most troublesome weeds in soyabean, cotton, maize and groundnut, across North America, Europe and Australia where it can cause reductions in yield (Stoller et al., 1987; Rushing and Oliver, 1998).

In 1995, X. strumarium ranked as the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh most troublesome weed in soyabean, cotton, maize and groundnut, respectively, across ten southern states in the USA. Between 1974 and 1995, X. strumarium decreased in importance in maize, soyabean and groundnuts in the southern USA, but increased in cotton (Webster and Coble, 1997). These rankings were based on distribution, abundance and difficulty of control. In soyabean, X. strumarium has been reported to cause the highest reductions in yield of all annual weeds in both northern and southern production areas of the USA (Stoller et al., 1987). Soyabean yield losses are estimated at 10% to 16% for 0.5 plants of X. strumarium per m of row, 65% for four plants and 80% for over ten plants per m of row, for weeds emerging at the same time as the crop (Stoller et al., 1987; Rushing and Oliver, 1998). Similar yield losses due to X. strumarium were reported in Ontario, Canada (Weaver, 1991). In Italy, Sartorato et al. (1996) recommended an economic threshold of only 0.05 plants of X. strumarium per square m in soyabeans. In addition to direct yield losses through competition, infestations of X. strumarium decrease soyabean seed quality and harvesting efficiency. One cocklebur per m of row was shown to cause a 7.2% increase in foreign material in harvested soyabeans, a 5.2% increase in seed moisture content, decreased test weight by 58.6 g/L seed and reduced combine speed (Ellis et al., 1998). The authors recommend the use of a pre-harvest desiccant when X. strumarium densities exceeded 0.5 plants per m of row.

In cotton in the USA, seed yield losses of 60 to 90 kg/ha (approximately 5%) have been reported from X. strumarium growing at a density of one plant per 15 m of row in Mississippi (Snipes et al., 1982). Cotton yield losses from one plant of X. strumarium per 3 m of row varied from 6% to 27% in North Carolina (Byrd and Coble, 1991). The critical period for X. strumarium in cotton lasted from 2 to 10 weeks after cotton emergence (Snipes et al., 1987). In groundnuts, X. strumarium has been reported to cause yield losses of 31-39% at a density of 0.5 plants and 88% at four plants per m of row in the southern USA (Royal et al., 1997a, b). X. strumarium densities higher than one plant per 2 m of row reduced deposition of the fungicide chlorothalonil by 34% (Royal et al., 1997b). The economic impact of X. strumarium in maize is somewhat lower than for soyabeans, cotton and groundnuts. Yields of maize in Illinois have been reported to decrease by 10% at one cocklebur per m of row, to a maximum yield loss of 27% at a density of 4.7 cockleburs per m of row (Beckett et al., 1988).

Infestations of X. strumarium can also cause significant yield losses in horticultural row crops (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983). In snap beans, yield losses of 5% to 50% were reported for densities of X. strumarium ranging from 0.5 to 8 per square m (Neary and Majek, 1990).

Xanthium strumarium has a detrimental impact on livestock production (Wapshere, 1974b; Hocking and Liddle, 1986). The burs lodge in animal hair and sheep wool, and are difficult to remove when the wool is processed after shearing. Contaminated wool requires special treatment and may have a price penalty of 25% or more (Wapshere, 1974b). The prickly burs can cause considerable discomfort to animals by clinging to hair on the legs and matting the tails and manes of horses.

Xanthium strumarium also has an economic impact in pastures, where cattle, sheep and pigs may be poisoned if they consume seedlings and young plants. Symptoms include vomiting, muscular spasms, liver degeneration and occasionally death. The cotyledons contain a toxic compound, carboxyatractyloside, which is absent in older plants (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983; Hocking and Liddle, 1986; Martin et al., 1992).

Xanthium strumarium is considered a noxious weed because it serves as a host for a number of pests and pathogens of crops. Sunflowers have been reported to be damaged by Puccinia xanthii and Alternaria helianthi [Alternariaster helianthi], both commonly found on X. strumarium (Hocking and Liddle, 1986). X. strumarium also hosts Sclerotinia minor and S. sclerotiorum, both fungal pests of soyabean (Hocking and Liddle, 1986). It is also an alternate host of Spilosoma obliqua [Spilarctia obliqua] (Lepidoptera) that attacks Egyptian cotton in India (Dhaliwal, 1993), and of Colletotrichum capsici, which causes anthracnose on tomato fruit and cotton seedlings (McLean and Roy, 1991).

Impact: Environmental

Impact on Habitats

In South Africa, X. strumarium competes with native species along riverbanks and also invades overgrazed pastures and spreads at the expense of native species (SAPIA, 2018). In Australia, it is regarded as an environmental weed and often invades riparian zones along river systems where it forms dense thickets. It has been listed as a priority environmental weed in seven Australian Natural Resource Management regions (Queensland Government, 2018). In Hawaii, X. strumarium is listed as a common weed of low elevation, relatively dry, disturbed habitats, but also invades seasonally wet areas (Wagner et al., 1999; PIER, 2018). In South Korea, it has invaded sand dunes (Kim, 2005).

Across East Africa, X. strumarium is listed as invasive in Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. In Kenya, this species has been recorded within the Tsavo National Park and the Meru National Park. It is widespread in Tanzania and Uganda and often invades pastures and grazing lands, causing reductions in forage production (BioNET-EAFRINET, 2018). In Ethiopia, X. strumarium has been identified as one of the top 20 invasive plant species. It is the dominant species on rangelands across Teltele, Yabello, Dire, Miyo, Moyale, Arero and Liben districts and it is also particularly abundant in rift valleys of the Oromia region (Nigussie et al., 2017; Seifu et al., 2017).

Impact on Biodiversity

Xanthium strumarium is a weed with impacts mostly in disturbed and semi-natural habitats. It is an aggressive herb that often becomes the dominant species in areas along the shores of ponds and rivers, floodplains, riverbanks, beaches and coastal dunes, but also in disturbed grasslands and forest edges. Once established, it rapidly forms dense thickets that outcompete native plant species for water and nutrients, altering the species structure and composition of invaded habitats as well as natural successional patterns (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983; Pitcher, 2001; Queensland Government, 2018; SAPIA, 2018). A laboratory experiment showed that leaf extracts of X. strumarium may inhibit the germination and restrict the growth of other plants, suggesting allelopathic activity in this species (Sinha and Singh, 2004).

Threatened Species

Threatened species	Where threatened	Mechanisms	References	Notes
Schiedea apokremnos (Kauai schiedea)	Hawaii	Competition (unspecified)	US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010)

Impact: Social

Xanthium strumarium produces large amounts of highly antigenic pollen (Reddi et al., 1980). The glandular hairs on the leaves and stems secrete a substance that causes contact dermatitis in allergic individuals (King, 1966). The burs are irritants and annoying to humans and wildlife and thus may reduce recreational opportunities. In humans, the spiny burs can cause injury and may stick to clothing and shoes. It can be a serious problem in recreational areas, primarily along reservoirs, lakes and riverbanks (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983; Pitcher, 2001; DiTomaso et al., 2013).

Risk and Impact Factors

Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range

Has a broad native range

Abundant in its native range

Highly adaptable to different environments

Is a habitat generalist

Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc

Pioneering in disturbed areas

Highly mobile locally

Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)

Fast growing

Has high reproductive potential

Gregarious

Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration

Modification of successional patterns

Monoculture formation

Negatively impacts agriculture

Negatively impacts human health

Negatively impacts animal health

Reduced amenity values

Reduced native biodiversity

Threat to/ loss of endangered species

Threat to/ loss of native species

Damages animal/plant products

Impact mechanisms

Allelopathic

Causes allergic responses

Competition - monopolizing resources

Competition - smothering

Pest and disease transmission

Hybridization

Poisoning

Rapid growth

Produces spines, thorns or burrs

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally

Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant

Difficult to identify/detect in the field

Difficult/costly to control

Uses

Xanthium strumarium has been used for various medicinal purposes, including the treatment of malaria in India (Mitch, 1987; Talakal et al., 1995). It has a long history of use as a medicinal plant in China; the traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and the safety aspects of X. strumarium have been reviewed by Fan et al. (2019). It is used as a leafy vegetable in China, and in Northeast India, the floral tops and the two leaves below are boiled in water and eaten, the toxic substances being removed by washing and cooking (PROSEA, 2018). The achenes yield a pale, yellow oil which can be used for cooking and industrial purposes. In India, the dry stems are used as fuel (PROSEA, 2018). The genus name is derived from the Greek ‘xanthos' which means 'yellow', and the plant may once have been used to produce a dye (Weaver and Lechowicz, 1983).

Uses List

Environmental > Host of pest

Materials > Dyestuffs

Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore

Fuels > Miscellaneous fuels

Human food and beverage > Oil/fat

Human food and beverage > Vegetable

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

Control

Cultural Control

Neither grazing nor burning is considered an effective means of control; not only is X. strumarium unpalatable, the seeds and foliage contain a glycoside which is toxic and fatal to livestock (DiTomaso et al., 2013).

Physical/Mechanical Control

Hand pulling is effective on small incipient populations. Pulling is most effective before bur development and seed dispersal. Mowing or disking at the flowering stage is also an effective strategy, but resprouts may occur after mowing and secondary treatment may be required (DiTomaso et al., 2013).

Biological Control

Biological control of X. strumarium has been attempted with Alternaria helianthi [Alternariaster helianthi] (Abbas and Barrentine, 1995) and Puccinia xanthii (Julien et al., 1979), and seed predation by the moth, Phaneta imbridana [Eucosma imbridana], and the trypetid fly, Euaresta aequalis (Hare and Futuyma, 1978; Hare, 1980). The stem-boring beetle Nupserha vexator (previously referred to as Nupserha antennata), native to India and Pakistan, was released in Australia in 1964 but provides little control since much of the damage occurs after the plants have set seed (Stride and Straatman, 1963; Wapshere, 1974a, b; Klinken and Morin, 2012). Another potential biocontrol agent is Oedopa sp. which feeds exclusively on the roots of Xanthium species (Hilgendorf and Goeden, 1983).

Chemical Control

Herbicides such as sulcitrone, amitrole, bentazon, dicamba, 2,4-D, glyphosate and fomesafen have been used to control X. strumarium when growing as a weed in cultivation (Mamarot and Rodriguez, 1997). In Papua New Guinea, Henty and Pritchard (1975) indicate susceptibility to 2,4-D, MCPB, amitrole, ametryne and diuron recommended for broad-leaved weeds, including atrazine, dicamba, metribuzin, bentazon, acifluorfen and imazethapyr. However, populations resistant to imidazolinones, ALS-inhibiting herbicides, and the arsenical herbicides MSMA/DSMA have been reported in the USA (Heap, 1997; Boyette and Hoagland, 2013).

Links to Websites

Name	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list

References

Abbas, H.K., Barrentine, W.L., 1995. Alternaria helianthi and imazaquin for control of imazaquin susceptible and resistant cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) biotypes.Weed Science, 43(3) 425-428.

Search and Discover

Knowledge and Data

Collections

Journals and Research

Books and Learning

Add to Project