Datasheet

Enhanced

7 June 2015

Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant)

Author: Vicki CottrellAuthors Info & Affiliations

70470

Datasheet Types: Natural enemy, Livestock species, Invasive species, Host animal

Abstract

This datasheet on Phasianus colchicus covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Management, Genetics and Breeding, Economics, Further Information.

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name: Phasianus colchicus
Preferred Common Name: common pheasant
International Common Names: English
farmed game production: pheasants
game pheasant
pheasant
pheasant, common
ring-necked pheasant
true pheasant; Spanish
faisán vulgar
faisante; French
faisan
faisan commun
faisan de Colchide; Russian
obyknovennyi fazan; Chinese
huán jing zhì; Portuguese
faisão
Local Common Names: Czech Republic
bažant obecný; Denmark
fasan; Finland
fasaani; Germany
Fasan, Edel-
Fasan, Jagd-
Jagdfasan
Jagdtfasanen; Hungary
facan; Iceland
fashani; Iran
gharghawol; Italy
fagiano comune; Japan
kouraikiji; Netherlands
fazant; Norway
fasan; Poland
bazant; Slovakia
bažant obycajný; Sweden
fasan
DADIS local name: Phasianos
DADIS main name: common Belgian pheasant
DADIS main name: ring neck pheasant
EPPO code: PHSNCO (Phasianus colchicus)

Pictures

Adult
Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); adult male. Poland.
©Łukasz Łukasik/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0

Adult
Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); adult female, feeding on privet berries (Ligustrum sp). Lodz, Poland. December, 2010.
©Jerzy Strzelecki/Poland - via Wikipedia - CC BY 3.0

Adults
Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); one male and several female ring-necked pheasants.
©INRA-Tours/Cattiau

Eggs
Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); typical eggs.
©INRA-Tours/Beguey

Chicks
Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); day-old chicks.
©INRA-Tours/Beguey

Chick
Phasianus colchicus (common pheasant); two-week old chick.
©INRA-Tours/Beguey

Summary of Invasiveness

P. colchicus is an attractive, colourful medium-sized bird with a native range in Eurasia. In its native range, it shows considerable variation in habitat, being found mainly in the overgrown edges of rivers, hilly areas and close to cultivation. Where it has been introduced, it is closely associated with grassland and agricultural land, often near to woodland edges. Due to its popularity as a game bird, it has been extensively and deliberately introduced to other areas, including Europe, North America, Japan and Australasia. The adverse effects of these introductions are not clear, and in general they appear to be small compared to the size of the introduced population. In the USA, there could be competitive effects on some threatened native birds, and in Japan some sources indicate that the species affects the native P. versicolor by hybridization.

Taxonomic Tree

Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The number of subspecies of Phasianus colchicus is unclear from the literature. According to Switzer (2011) and Zhang et al. (2014), there are 31 subspecies, and these are described according to morphological characters and plumage (Zhang et al., 2014), and often divided into either 5 or 6 groups (see table below).

Kozyrenko et al. (2009) suggested that the number of subspecies could be in the range 31–37, and found very low population genetic differences between three separate populations of Phasianus colchicus pallasi.

Recent phylogenetic investigations do not support the currently described subspecies, and there appears to be widespread hybridization, especially for the Chinese ring-necked pheasants (Qu et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2014).

The table below has been compiled using the following sources: Avibase (2015); Qu et al. (2009); GBWF (2012).

Group	Scientific Name	Common Name
The Phasianus colchicus colchicus group. Caucasus pheasants or Black-necked pheasants	P.c. colchicus, Linnaeus, 1758	Southern Caucasus Pheasant
	P.c. persicus, Severtsov, 1875	Persian Pheasant
	P.c. septentrionalis, Lorenz, 1888	Northern Caucasian Pheasant
	P.c. talischensis, Lorenz, 1888	Talisch Caucasian Pheasant
The Phasianus colchicus chrysomelas/principalis group White-winged pheasants	P.c. bianchii, Buturlin, 1904	Bianchi’s Pheasant
	P.c. chrysomelas, Severtsov, 1875	Khivan Pheasant
	P.c. principalis, Sclater, PL, 1885	Northern Pheasant / Prince of Wales’ Pheasant
	P.c. zerafschanicus, Tarnovski, 1893	Zerafshan Pheasant
	P.c. zarudnyi, Buturlin, 1904	Zarudny’s Pheasant
The Phasianus colchicus mongolicus group Mongolian ring-necked pheasants/ Kirghiz pheasants	P.c. bergii, Zarudny, 1914 (considered to be identical to P.c. turcestanicus)
	P.c. mongolicus, von Brandt, 1844	Kirghiz Pheasant
	P.c. turcestanicus, Lorenz, 1896	Syr Daria Pheasant
The Phasianus colchicus tarimensis group Tarim pheasants	P.c. shawii, Elliot, 1870	Yarkland Pheasant
The Phasianus colchicus tarimensis group Tarim pheasants	P.c. tarimensis , Pleske, 1889	Tarim Pheasant
The Phasianus colchicus torquatus group Chinese ring-necked pheasants/ Grey-rumped pheasants	P.c. alaschanicus, Alphéraky & Bianchi, 1908	Alashan Pheasant
	P.c. decollatus, Swinhoe, 1870	Kweichow Pheasant
	P.c. elegans, Elliot, 1870	Stone’s Pheasant
	P.c. edzinensis, Sushkin, 1926	Gobi (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. formosanus, Elliot, 1870	Formosan (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c . hagenbecki, Rothschild, 1901	Kobdo (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. karpowi, Buturlin, 1904	Korean (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. kiangsuensis, Buturlin, 1904	Shansi Pheasant
	P.c. pallasi, Rothschild, 1903	Manchurian (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. rothschildi, La Touche, 1922	Rothschild’s Pheasant
	P.c. satscheuensis, Pleske, 1892	Satchu (Ring-necked) Pheasant
	P.c. sohokotensis, Buturlin, 1908	Sohokhoto Pheasant
	P.c. strauchi, Przevalski, 1876	Strauch’s Pheasant
	P.c. suehschanensis, Bianchi, 1906	Sungpan Pheasant
	P.c. takatsukasae, Delacour, 1927	Tonkinese (Ring-necked) pheasant
	P.c. torquatus, Gmelin, JF, 1789	Chinese (Ring-necked) pheasant
	P.c. vlangalii, Przevalski, 1876	Zaidan Pheasant

The green pheasant, Phasianus versicolor, also known as the Japanese Pheasant, was previously considered to be a subspecies of P. colchicus, although now it is considered to be a separate species (BirdLife International, 2015c; McGowan et al., 2013). In Japan, where P. versicolor is native, introduced P. colchicus does not always thrive, potentially due to competition from P. versicolor, and the two do not hybridize particularly successfully (McGowan et al., 2013). (However, P. c. karpowi is listed as an invasive species with a hybridization impact on P. versicolor by some authorities -- NIES, 2015). In Hawaii, where both P. colchicus and P. versicolor are introduced, hybridization is successful (McGowan et al., 2013).

When considered to be part of P. colchicus, P. versicolor was allocated to a sixth group, the Phasianus colchicus versicolor group with four subspecies (see table below).

Scientific Name	Common Name
Phasianus versicolor versicolor, Vieillot, 1825, (P. c. versicolor)	Kyushu Green (Ring-necked) Pheasant
Phasianus versicolor robustipes, Kuroda Sr, 1919 (P. c. robustipes)	Northern Green (Ring-necked) Pheasant
Phasianus versicolor tanensis, Kuroda Sr, 1919 (P. c. tanensis)	Pacific Green (Ring-necked) Pheasant
Phasianus versicolor tohkaidi, Momiyama, 1922 (P.c. tohkaidi)	Shikoku Green (Ring-necked) Pheasant

Switzer (2011) does consider P. versicolor to be part of P. colchicus, and describes two main groups of P. colchicus: colchicus and versicolor. Colchicus (described as having barred, coppery/red/yellow mantle and underparts, and a prominent neck ring) is found in mainland Eurasia, and versicolor (described as green on the neck, breast and upper belly and without the neck ring) as native to Japan and introduced to Hawaii.

Description

There is a high degree of sexual dimorphism in P. colchicus, with the male bird being typically larger and more colourful than the smaller brown female. Males typically have multicoloured plumage with long, pointed and barred tails with heads ranging from glossy dark green to iridescent purple (Switzer, 2011). The RSPB (2015) describe the males as having rich chestnut, golden-brown and black markings on the tail and body with a dark green head and red face wattling; there may or may not be a white neck ring, and males are conspicuous and noisy (Elphick and Woodward, 2003). The female is described by the RSPB (2015) as mottled, with paler brown and black (and with a shorter tail and no wattles or pinnae, the latter being the tufts of feathers behind the eyes that the males have – Robertson, 1988).

Males are 75–89 cm long (tail 42.5–59 cm) and weigh 770–1990 g, and females are 53–62 cm long (tail 29–31 cm) and weigh 545–1453 g (McGowan et al., 2013). Wingspan is 70-90 cm (McGowan et al., 2013).

Due to breeding and hybridization with P. versicolor, there are also forms with dark plumage, known as melanistic (mutant) pheasants.

History

The common pheasant originates from Asia. It was introduced into Greece during the ninth century BC, then into Italy by the Romans and into France and England during the tenth century AD. They were introduced into North America at the end of the nineteenth century and are now present in most of the United States and Canada (Mullin, 2000). According to Delacour (1977) pheasants were well known in China and other Asian countries over three thousand years ago. The name was thought to have originated from the Greeks who named them the bird of Colchis, living along the river Phasis.

Population Table

Population size
Status	Not under threat

Status

The species is not threatened in its original range and has extended its range through introduction into other countries. The number of subspecies crossed to obtain the introduced populations (Europe, North American, and North Africa) explain the variability in size and in plumage colour of pheasants.

Composition

The pheasants found in the areas where they have been introduced often result from crosses between different subspecies. The most frequent are Phasianus colchicus colchicus, P. c. torquatus, P.c. mongolicus and P. c. karpowi. Some populations also contain proportions of Phasianus versicolor crosses. The various crosses and subspecies show a wide range of coloration and size. The pheasants found in Europe are heavier than their American counterparts. However, the Americans have selected a heavy pheasant with white plumage for meat production.

Pathogens Carried

Distribution

BirdLife International (2015b) lists the native range of European P. colchicus as: Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, and lists countries in Europe where it was introduced as: Albania; Andorra; Austria; Belarus; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Czech Republic; Denmark; Finland; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Ireland, Rep. of; Italy; Latvia; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Moldova; Montenegro; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine; United Kingdom – i.e. most European countries.

Switzer (2011) lists the native range as extending from the Caspian Sea, east across central Asia to China, including Korea, Japan (although this refers to P. versicolor) and Burma [Myanmar]. The species has been introduced to Europe, North America, Hawaii, Australia and New Zealand, and in North America it is mostly established on mid-latitude agricultural land (Switzer, 2011).

Lever (2005) lists the natural range of P. colchicus as the southern Palaearctic and north-eastern Oriental regions -- in Eastern Europe in parts of the Caucasus Mountains, and in Asia from northern Asia Minor east to Korea, China and Taiwan. Lever (2005) lists the naturalized range as Europe (British Isles, Continental Europe), Asia (Japan), North America (Canada, Mexico, USA), West Indies, South America (Chile), Australasia (Australia, New Zealand), Atlantic Ocean (St. Helena), Indian Ocean (Mascarene Islands), and the Pacific Ocean (French Polynesia, Hawaiian Islands), although the continued presence of the species in a few countries is uncertain.

In North America, populations are established on most mid-latitude agricultural lands from southern Canada to Utah and California to the New England states, and south to Virginia (Giudice and Ratti, 2015).

In Japan, P. c. karpowi was introduced for hunting, and its range now is described as: Hokkaido, Honshu (the Pacific side of Kanto to Tokai Districts, Nara), Shikoku (Ehime), Kyushu (Fukuoka, Miyazaki, mainland Kagoshima Prefectures, Tsushima, and Osumi), and Amami, Okinawa, and Sakishima Islands (NIES, 2015).

Distribution Map

Distribution Table

History of Introduction and Spread

P. colchicus has been widely introduced, for hunting or food, to Europe, North America and other areas, from its native range in Asia. Since many introductions happened centuries ago, it is difficult to know precisely when this happened. Some of the known introductions are listed in the History of Introduction table or mentioned in the Distribution table. It is possible that the species was introduced to what is now the UK in the 11^th century, since that is when the first documentary evidence of its presence there occurs (as a food source) (Lever, 2005; Yardley, 2009). The UK now has the largest population of P. colchicus in Europe (BirdLife International, 2015a).

Introductions

Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reasons	Introduced by	Established in wild through		References	Notes
Introduced to	Introduced from	Year	Reasons	Introduced by	Natural reproduction	Continuous restocking	References	Notes
Australia		1855-1960s	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Lever (2005)	Several introductions between 1855 and 1960s. First attempts in Victoria only temporarily successful; later introductions to Tasmania and S. Australia successful
Bahamas		1950s			No	No	Lever (2005)	Possibly established on Eleuthera
Chile	UK	1886	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		No	No	Jaksic (1998)	Died out by 1900
Chile	Germany	1914	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Jaksic (1998)	Small population: ‘hardly found in the feral state’
Dominican Republic		1950s	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		No	No	Lever (2005)	Some may survive on Hispaniola in the hills near Cabo Rojo
New Zealand		1842-1910			Yes	No		Several introductions over the years
Oregon		1881	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		Yes	No	McLash (2008)
UK		11th cent	Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)		Yes	No	Lever (2005)	Date and reason uncertain; possbly introduced in 11th centrury

Risk of Introduction

P. colchicus has already been widely introduced to Europe, North America, Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand and other areas. Since it can utilize various habitats (BirdLife International, 2015b), wherever the birds are managed as game near to suitable wild habitat it is possible that they could escape and become naturalized.

Means of Movement and Dispersal

Accidental Introduction

Most introductions appear to be deliberate.

Intentional Introduction

P. colchicus has been knowingly and extensively introduced to Europe, North America, Hawaii and other regions of the world as a game bird that has naturalized. In areas where it is managed as a game bird, it is intentionally released from pens into surrounding estates/countryside in large numbers for hunting (GWCT, 2015).

Pathway Causes

Pathway cause	Notes	Long distance	Local
Animal production (pathway cause)	Deliberate introduction as gamebird from Asia to Europe, N. America, Chile, Australia & New Zealand	Yes	Yes
Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause)	Deliberate introduction as gamebird from Asia to Europe, N. America, Chile, Australia & New Zealand	Yes	Yes
Intentional release (pathway cause)	Deliberate introduction as gamebird from Asia to Europe, N. America, Chile, Australia & New Zealand	Yes	Yes

Similarities to Other Species/Conditions

P. colchicus is closely related to the Green Pheasant, Phasianus versicolor (once considered a subspecies of P. colchicus) (BirdLife International, 2015c). Male P. versicolor are described as having green necks, breasts and upper bellies, and do not have the white neck ring (Switzer, 2011). Similar species in Europe include the Golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus), distinguished by its shyer nature, and very bright red underparts, yellow head and lower back and finely barred tail (RSPB, 2015), and Lady Amherst’s pheasant (Chrysolophus amherstiae), easily distinguished by its white underbelly, yellow lower back edged in red and bare blueish skin on the face and legs (RSPB, 2015; Heinzel et al., 1998).

Females and juveniles of P. colchicus could potentially be mistaken for other pheasants (or other species such as partridges, although the long pointed tail should set them apart).

Habitat

P. colchicus occupy grassland and farmland habitats, preferring relatively open cover, such as grass and stubble fields with nearby trees or bushes for cover (Switzer, 2011). As generalists, they will though occupy a range of habitat types, except for dense tropical or alpine forests or very dry areas (Switzer, 2011). They prefer areas near to water although they can obtain water from dew, insects and succulent vegetation (Switzer, 2011).

In its natural range, P. colchicus shows considerable variation in habitat, being found mainly in the overgrown edges of rivers, hilly areas close to cultivation and cultivated flat land (BirdLife International, 2015b).

P. colchicus has a range territory size of 0.8–3.2 km² (Switzer, 2011).

Habitat List

Category	Sub category	Habitat	Presence
Terrestrial
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Cultivated / agricultural land	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Managed forests, plantations and orchards	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Terrestrial – Managed	Managed grasslands (grazing systems)	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Natural forests	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Natural grasslands	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Riverbanks	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Wetlands	Principal habitat
Terrestrial	Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural	Scrub / shrublands	Secondary/tolerated habitat

Biology and Ecology

Genetics

P. colchicus have a diploid number of 81 and 82 for females and males, respectively, with the sex chromosomes always unpaired in females (Castillo et al., 2010).

The complete mitochondrial genome of P. colchicus is 16,692 bp long and is composed of 13 typical protein coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes and 1 putative control region (Li et al., 2013).

Kozyrenko et al. (2009) suggest that the number of subspecies could be in the range 31–37, and found very low population genetic differences between three separate populations of Phasianus colchicus pallasi. Phylogenetic studies on Chinese subspecies of P. colchicus have not supported the subspecies (Qu et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2014).

Initially found in the UK, there are melanistic forms of P. colchicus (Heinzel et al., 1998; GBWF, 2012) most likely due to a recessive allele (GBWF, 2012).

P. colchicus may hybridize with P. versicolor (McGowan et al., 2013; NIES, 2015).

Reproductive Biology

P. colchicus have a polygamous mating system, where males have a harem of females and take no part in rearing the chicks (McLash, 2008). Males actively defend a territory and crow in an attempt to attract females to mate with (McLash, 2008). Females chose to mate with males with intermediate similarity of histocompatibility complex (Baratti et al., 2012) and with long tails and ear tufts (Switzer, 2011).

The females are not territorial (Switzer, 2011), construct a nest on the ground, and lay 6-14 eggs (McLash, 2008) (7-15 eggs according to Switzer, 2011; 9-14 eggs in the native range in Azerbaijan, according to BirdLife International, 2015b), laying one egg a day (Switzer, 2011). Larger clutches occur when more than one female lays her eggs in the same nest (Switzer, 2011). The nest is a shallow depression in the ground, often lined with plant material (BirdLife International, 2015b).

Hatching can take 23–28 days and fledging takes 7–12 days, with the time to complete independence being 70–80 days (Switzer, 2011). The young are precocial and are able to run around and eat soon after hatching (McLash, 2008; Switzer, 2011). Sexual maturity occurs at 1 year old (Switzer, 2011).

The breeding season can be highly variable in both native and introduced ranges (McGowan et al., 2013). Breeding occurs once a year and the season extends from March to June (Switzer, 2011). In the native range in Azerbaijan, egg-laying occurs in April and May (BirdLife International, 2015b).

Longevity

P. colchicus can typically live for 11–18 years in captivity, and approximately 3 years in the wild (Switzer, 2011). Males may have an annual survival rate of 7%, compared with 21-46% for females. These figures can be lower where hunting occurs (Switzer, 2011).

Activity Patterns/Behaviour

P. colchicus have a range territory size of 0.8–3.2km², with the range being smaller in winter than during the nesting season. They are social birds and can form flocks in the autumn in areas of food and cover (Switzer, 2011).

They spend most of their time on the ground (where they scratch for food in the undergrowth with their bills) and in trees, and can run swiftly, holding their tails up at a 45 degree angle. They have a strutting gait when walking and are strong fliers, with the ability to take off suddenly. They use dust bathing to help remove skin cells, excess oil and old feathers (Switzer, 2011).

Mass migrations may occur in the native range but in its introduced range the species is sedentary (BirdLife International, 2015b). P. colchicus pallasi in the Russian Far East undergoes seasonal migrations of 200-300 km in a straight line in extremely severe and snowy winters. P. c. mongolicus in the mountains of Central Asia has also been recorded as undergoing seasonal migration (Kulikova et al., 2002).

Population Size and Structure

The estimated global population size of P. colchicus is very large (although decreasing), at 45– 300 million individuals, with the population in Europe estimated at 10.2– 14.1 million (BirdLife International, 2015c).

Nutrition

P. colchicus have a diet consisting of waste grain, weed seeds, fruits, leaves and insects (McLash, 2008). In the native range, they feed on plant matter such as fruits, seeds, leaves, buds and a small amount of animal matter such as insects (BirdLife International, 2015b). Where the species is introduced it is an opportunistic omnivore, feeding on a diverse range of food, but preferring energy-rich items such as cultivated grains, mast and fruits (BirdLife International, 2015b). Crops eaten include maize (Zea mays), wheat (Triticum), barley (Hordeum vulgare) and flax (Linum) (Switzer, 2011). In North America, weed seeds eaten include foxtail (Setaria), ragweed (Ambrosia) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) (Switzer, 2011). Fruits eaten include wild grape (Vitis), apples (Malus), and blackberries (Rubus). The birds also eat grasshoppers (Orthoptera), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), crickets (Gryllidae), and snails (Gastropoda) (Switzer, 2011).

Environmental Requirements

P. colchicus prefer areas near to water, although they can obtain water from dew, insects and succulent vegetation (Switzer, 2011).

Environment Requirements

Environmental Requirements Table

Climate	Preferred	Range of Tolerance
Temperate	Yes
Subtropical	Yes
Arid Tropics	No
Wet Tropics	Yes
Microclimate	lowland

Climate

Climate type	Description	Preferred or tolerated
Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year	Tolerated
Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers	Preferred
Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter	Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters)	Preferred
Ds - Continental climate with dry summer	Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers)	Tolerated

Latitude/Altitude Ranges

Latitude North (°N)	Latitude South (°S)	Altitude lower (m)	Altitude upper (m)
66	46

List of Diseases and Disorders

Natural enemy of

Notes on Natural Enemies

Pheasants are susceptible to the viral infection Newcastle disease (ND) (Jørgensen et al., 1999; Aldous and Alexander, 2008). Between 1994 and 2005, outbreaks of ND in pheasants were recorded in Denmark, Finland, France, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy and Northern Ireland (Aldous and Alexander, 2008). Pheasants are also susceptible to respiratory diseases caused by coronaviruses, which have been found to have a high degree of genetic similarity with the coronaviruses of chickens and turkeys (Cavanagh et al., 2002). In captivity, P. colchicus may be susceptible to marble spleen disease caused by type II avian adenovirus (Lee et al., 2001).

P. colchicus are susceptible to several nematode parasites (Gassal and Schmäschke, 2006; Santilli and Bagliacca, 2011). Other parasites include: Borrelia burgdorferi, ticks (Ixodes ricinus), fleas (Siphonaptera), tapeworms (Railletina) (Switzer, 2011) and lice (Mallophaga) (Dik and Uslu, 2006, referring to captive birds in Turkey; Rak et al., 1975, reporting Amyrsidea hexapilosus [Amyrsidea (Argimenopon) perdicis] in wild birds in Iran).

In the UK, P. colchicus are predated by buzzards (Buteo buteo), owls, sparrowhawks (Accipiter nisus), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and other mammals (Parrott, 2015; Kenward et al., 2001). A study in the UK and Austria found nest predation by corvids, foxes (Vulpes vulpes), badgers (Meles meles) and other mammals (Draycott et al., 2008). In Sweden, goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) have also been shown to predate P. colchicus (Kenward et al., 1981). Predators recorded in North America include: domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), coyotes (Canis latrans), mink (Neovison vison), weasels (Mustela spp.), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), raccoons (Procyon lotor), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus), rough-legged hawks (Buteo lagopus), Cooper’s hawks (Accipiter cooperii), peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), northern harriers (Circus cyaneus [Circus hudsonius]) and snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina) (Switzer, 2011).

Natural enemies

Natural enemy	Type	Specificity
Accipiter cooperii	Predator	not specific
Accipiter gentilis	Predator	not specific
Accipiter nisus	Predator	not specific
Amyrsidea perdicis	Parasite
Ascaridia	Parasite	not specific
Borrelia burgdorferi	Parasite	not specific
Bubo virginianus	Predator	not specific
Buteo buteo	Predator	not specific
Buteo jamaicensis	Predator	not specific
Buteo lagopus	Predator	not specific
Buteo lineatus	Predator	not specific
Canis latrans (Coyote)	Predator	not specific
Canis lupus familiaris (dogs)	Predator	not specific
Capillaria	Parasite	not specific
Chelydra serpentina	Predator	not specific
Circus hudsonius	Predator	not specific
Coronavirus	Pathogen	not specific
Corvidae	Predator	not specific
Eimeria	Parasite	not specific
Falco peregrinus	Predator	not specific
Heterakis	Parasite	not specific
Ixodes ricinus (sheep tick)	Parasite	not specific
Meles meles	Predator	not specific
Mephitis mephitis (striped skunk)	Predator	not specific
Mustela	Predator	not specific
Neovison vison (American mink)	Predator	not specific
Newcastle disease virus	Pathogen	not specific
Procyon lotor (raccoon)	Predator	not specific
Raillietina	Parasite	not specific
Siphonaptera	Parasite	not specific
Strigiformes	Predator	not specific
Syngamus	Parasite	not specific
Vulpes vulpes (red fox)	Predator	not specific

Impact Summary

Category	Impact
Cultural/amenity	Positive
Economic/livelihood	Positive
Environment (generally)	Positive and negative

Impact: Economic

P. colchicus has no major effects on crops, although there may be localized effects after captive-bred releases. Any small amount of local damage to crop plants in Europe and the USA is far outweighed by the economic value of the species (Lever, 2005). The species was said to be an agricultural pest on St Helena in the 1950s, although the population has declined substantially since then (Lever, 2005).

Due to the susceptibility of P. colchicus to Newcastle disease, and its potential to spread this to other birds, it can be a cause of economic losses if an embargo on poultry sales is imposed as a result of an outbreak (Switzer, 2011).

Impact: Environmental

Impact on Habitats

Where large numbers of pheasants are released for the hunting season, this sudden influx of birds could potentially affect local ecosystems. They could potentially deplete food sources for other animals, affect ground/hedge flora, and attract more predators to the environment (GWCT, 2015). Some research suggests that captive bred P. colchicus that are released into suitable habitat have an extremely low survival rate (Sodeikat et al., 1995), and that those that survive the shooting season do not breed well (GWCT, 2015), which might limit their effect.

It has been suggested that P. colchicus spread seeds of non-native plants on Hawaii, although they may also facilitate the dispersal and germination of indigenous species (Lever, 2005).

Impact on Biodiversity

Where large numbers are released to boost wild populations for the hunting season, this influx of birds could potentially reduce the diversity of ground/hedge flora, other grain- and seed-eating birds, and amphibians and reptiles (GWCT, 2015), although as mentioned above released birds may not survive or breed well.

Farm-reared P. colchicus that are managed and released could potentially spread parasites to wild populations (Santilli and Bagliacca, 2011).

A UK-based study found that management of wild P. colchicus as a gamebird on farmland had no effect on farmland passerine diversity, although for some species, individual numbers increased (Stoate, 2002). Areas that are managed as suitable habitat for P. colchicus may attract wildlife and so could have a positive impact on biodiversity. On the other hand, in the UK there are reports of continued persecution of raptors near game bird rearing and release sites (Smart et al., 2010).

In the USA, P. colchicus may have an inhibitory effect (as a competitor) on the Northern Bobwhite Colinus virginianus (classified as Near Threatened – IUCN, 2015) and may also affect the Greater Prairie-chicken Tympanuchus cupido (in whose nests they sometimes lay their own eggs, and which is classified as Vulnerable) (Lever, 2005). P. colchicus has also been recorded as a brood parasite of the Vulnerable Lesser Prairie-chicken T. pallidicinctus in Kansas, USA (Hagen et al., 2002). It is possible that exotic introductions have an effect on Attwater’s Greater Prairie-chicken Tympanuchus cupido attwateri, which is on the US list of endangered species, and prohibiting the introduction to public lands of exotic species such as P. colchicus has been proposed as an action to aid recovery of T. c. attwateri (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010).

P. colchicus may negatively affect Perdix perdix (grey partridge) through nest parasitism, habitat competition, disease transmission and aggressive behaviour (Switzer, 2011).

P. colchicus karpowi is listed as an invasive species with a hybridization impact on the native Japanese species P. versicolor by some authorities (NIES, 2015), although according to McGowan et al. (2013) the two do not hybridize particularly successfully.

If as has been suggested P. colchicus spread seeds of non-native plants on Hawaii (Lever, 2005), this could have an adverse effect on native biodiversity, although they may also facilitate the dispersal and germination of indigenous species (Lever, 2005). The species has had neglible impact on terrestrial invertebrates in Hawaii and does not compete with endemic bird species there (Lever, 2005).

Threatened Species

Threatened species	Where threatened	Mechanisms	References
Colinus virginianus	USA	Competition	Lever (2005)
Tympanuchus cupido	USA	Competition Pest and disease transmission	Lever (2005) Switzer (2011)
Tympanuchus cupido attwateri (Attwater's greater prairie chicken)	Texas		US Fish and Wildlife Service (2010)
Tympanuchus pallidicinctus	Kansas		Hagen et al. (2002)

Risk and Impact Factors

Invasiveness

Proved invasive outside its native range

Highly adaptable to different environments

Is a habitat generalist

Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc

Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food

Highly mobile locally

Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)

Gregarious

Impact outcomes

Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration

Threat to/ loss of endangered species

Threat to/ loss of native species

Impact mechanisms

Competition (unspecified)

Hybridization

Likelihood of entry/control

Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately

Uses

Economic Value

P. colchicus is a food source throughout its range. Where it is managed for hunting, it is of economic benefit to land owners and local communities by attracting paying visitors to the area. There is a considerable national and international trade in chicks and viable eggs (Aldous and Alexander, 2008). A recent report (PACEC, 2012) found that game shooting (predominantly of pheasants) on Exmoor, UK, contributed £18 million per year to the UK economy, of which £4 million remained in the local area.

Social Benefit

During the hunting/shooting season there is presumably a positive social benefit for the people involved. Since pheasants are attractive birds, they also have positive social benefits to people who are walking, birdwatching etc. in the countryside where they are likely to encounter them.

P. colchicus meat is a good nutritional source of iron -- 100g of drumstick can provide 23.6% of the recommended daily intake (Franco and Lorenzo, 2013).

Environmental Services

It has been suggested that P. colchicus in Hawaii facilitate the dispersal and germination of indigenous plant species as well as introduced ones. In this way, it has been suggested that the species may help to restore degraded ecosystems on Maui (Lever, 2005).

Management of land for pheasants may benefit other species as well.

Uses List

General > Sport (hunting, shooting, fishing, racing)

Materials > Feathers

Human food and beverage > Meat/fat/offal/blood/bone (whole, cut, fresh, frozen, canned, cured, processed or smoked)

Products

In Europe, pheasants are mostly produced as game birds and are the favourite target of over 7 million hunters. In France alone, 13 million pheasants are produced for 1.6 million hunters each year. In the United States, pheasants produced for meat (Jumbo pheasants) have a big share of the total pheasant production (Woodard et al., 1993).

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.

There are no reports in the literature of any prevention and control measures against P. colchicus (even in Japan where P. c. karpowi is considered invasive), except for the suggestion in the USA that its introduction to public lands, along with that of other exotic species, should be prohibited to aid the recovery of the endangered Attwater's Greater Prairie-Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010). It is unlikely that the general public is aware of any issues with the bird as an introduced species, unless they are involved in activities where its presence would be noticed.

Reproduction

In natural conditions, males attract females to form a harem. The major sexual displays are feeding, courtship and lateral displays. The rise in testosterone in males is shown by the increased vertical size of the wattles and increased body weight (Briganti et al., 1999). In natural conditions the first egg is observed at the end of March, but the maximum laying period is at the beginning of May. Clutch size varies between 10 to 15 eggs (Penkov, 1996).

The egg formation starts when day length reaches 12 hours 30 minutes and the first egg is laid 3 weeks later. In captivity reproduction occurs in pens with 1 male and 6 to 8 females, or in groups with, for example 8 males and 42 females (Gavard-Gongallud, 2000). Eggs can be kept for up to 7 days at 15-16°C. They spend 21 days in the incubator at 37.8°C and a relative humidity of about 50 %. The eggs are turned twice a day. They then spend 3.5 days in the hatcher at a temperature of 37.5°C and about 80 % relative humidity. Hatching occurs after 24.5 to 25 days (Gavard-Gongallud, 2000).

Reproduction Table

Performance Criterion	Value
Age at first conception/lay (months)	8 - 10

Husbandry

Throughout the rearing period a lot of attention should be devoted to vegetation in the aviaries and to the number of feeders and drinkers. When these need to be changed to fit the animal requirements, the changes should be progressive to avoid under-consumption.

Table: Feeder and drinker requirements for groups of 500 pheasants.

Ages in weeks	Feeders	Drinkers
1	8 plates	8 x 1 litre bells
2 – 3	4 plates4 linear feeders 0.5 m	8 x 1.5 litre bells
4 – 6	6 linear feeders 0.5 m	4 x 1.5 litre bells+ 4 linear automatic 1 m
7 - 10	8 linear feeders 1 m	6 linear automatic 1 m
> 11	8 linear feeders 1 m	7 linear automatic 1 m

The feeders and drinkers should be evenly spread over the surface of the aviary. Food and water should be available ad libitum. Food should be presented as small crumbs during the first 3 weeks, as crumbs between 4 and 6 weeks of age and then as pellets (2.5 mm in diameter from 7 to 10 weeks of age and 4 mm thereafter).

Husbandry Table

Type
Extensive
Outdoor
Outdoor Space:	0.05m² - 5m²

Health

Pheasants are susceptible to most of the diseases found in gallinaceous birds. The major problems are due to Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Escherichia coli (collibacillosis) and Clostridium botulism (botulism). The major diseases found only in pheasants are marbled spleen disease and gapeworms.

The marbled spleen disease is characterized by swelling and marbling of the spleen, swelling of the liver, pulmonary congestion and death (up to 100% of the flock). Vaccination of the flock using a tissue culture called turkey haemorrhagic enteritis (THE) can be performed when pheasants are 5 weeks old. The vaccine can be distributed in drinking, water and is usually successful.

The gapeworm (Syngamus) is a parasitic worm living in the pheasant’s trachea. It is frequent in aviaries where pheasants are kept for prolonged periods. Gapeworm can be successfully treated with Tramizol in drinking water and with Thibenzole and Flubenzole in the food (Woodard et al., 1993).

Another frequently encountered health problem is feather pecking and cannibalism. It can take different forms such as feather pulling and toe, head or nose pecking. It is often the symptom that something is wrong with the food (nutritionally imbalanced) or with the management, for example the density is too high or the aviary has been badly planted.

Nutritional Requirements

The food consumption in g/pheasant/period are as follows for normal animals with a mean body weight of 1.5 kg (males) or 1.15 kg (females).

Age in weeks	g/bird/period
1-3	310
4-6	660
7-10	1400
11-20	4300
1-20	6670

The form of presentation of food should be adapted to age (see husbandry section).

The optimum flock of pheasants will have a normal growth with good feathering and be homogenous. Protein and amino acid levels are essential to reach this goal. An excess of protein during early life leads to good growth but bad feathering, and this is often followed by cannibalism (Melin and Larbier, 1988). The tendency now is to increase the percentage of fibre in the food (Schulze, 1992; Bagliacca et al., 1996; Draycott et al., 1998). This increase the development of the gut, the intestine and caeca and gives the animal better potential when re-introduced into the wild.

During the winter period the food distributed should contain 19 % protein and 11.5 MJ/kg of energy. One third of the food should be provided as wheat and two thirds as complete food. One month before laying, calcium is increased to 1.9 % and available phosphorus to 0.46 % of the diet. During the laying period, food should contain 21.5 % protein, 11.3MJ/kg energy and 3 % calcium (Gavard-Gongallud, 2000).

Nutritional Requirements Table

Daily Requirement
Layers	Broilers	Broiler Breeders	Dual Purpose	Mature Males
Water (l/day)	0.13 - 0.14	0.03 - 0.14
Protein (g/day)	9.05	7.62 - 13.34
Amino Acids (g/day)
Methionine (Met) (M)	0.023	0.019 - 0.028
Threonine (Thr) (T)	0.0391	0.03 - 0.0524
Valine (Val) (V)	0.0476	0.0314 - 0.0619
Arginine (Arg) (R)	0.0429	0.0343 - 0.0762
Isoleucine (Ile) (I)	0.0619	0.0286 - 0.0572
Leucine (Leu) (L)	0.0667	0.0333 - 0.0905
Histidine (His) (H)	0.0214	0.0167 - 0.0285
Phenylalanine (Phe) (F)	0.0429	0.0291 - 0.0572
Lysine (Lys) (K)	0.0228	0.036 - 0.083
Tyrosine (Tyr) (Y)	0.0104	0.007 - 0.0128
Vitamins
Pantothenic Acid (mg/day)		0.4288 - 0.5717
Choline (mg/day)		35.73 - 47.64
Vitamin B Complex (Vitamin B(12)) (mg/day)		0.00048 - 0.00057
Vitamin K (mg/day)		0.0715 - 0.0953
Vitamin B Complex (Thiamin) (B\s\do(1)) (mg/day)		0.0953 - 0.1191
Vitamin B Complex (Pyridoxine) (B\s\do(6)) (mg/day)		0.1906 - 0.2382
Retinol (Vitamin A) (i.u.)	571.68	190.56 - 238.2
Vitamin B Complex (Riboflavin) (B(2)) (mg/day)		0.14292 - 0.19056
Minerals (mg/day)
Selenium (Se)		0.0095 - 0.0142
Calcium (Ca)	905.16 - 1429.2	538.332 - 857.52
Sodium (Na)		85.752
Iodine (I)		0.0191
Manganese (Mn)		2.6202 - 3.3348
Iron (Fe)		3.3348 - 3.8112
Copper (Cu)		0.3811 - 0.4764
Zinc (Zn)		2.8584 - 3.8112

Genetics

The pheasant karyotype is characterized by 2n=82. There are relatively few studies on genetics of plumage colour. However white strains for meat production and melanistic forms for hunting have been developed.

As the genetics table shows, heritabilities of body weight are variable. For reproduction characteristics, Petitjean et al. (1990) found a heritability of 0.4 for the number of spermatozoa per ejaculate and genetic correlations of 0.4 between this character and the number of eggs laid, and of 0.6 with the number of chicks hatched per incubated egg.

Molecular genetics of wild introduced populations show that these populations are very fragmented (Giesel et al., 1997).

Genetics

Genetic Parameters for Economic Traits

Trait	Heritability	Reference
16 week body weight	0.27-0.79	Kim Yang 1998; Petitjean et al. 1990; Rizzi R et al. 1994
Length of tarsus	0.27-0.34	Kim Yang 1998; Rizzi R et al. 1994
Number of spermatozoa per ejaculate	0.4	Petitjean et al. 1990
Flight length	0.56	Boyer Melin 1974
Age at first egg	0.34
Egg number	0.21
Egg weight	0.48
% fertility	0.29

Genetic Resources and Breeding

The major characters selected were first chosen to improve the number of chicks hatched per female. Selection was thus directed towards a reduction of age at first egg and an increase in the number of eggs to incubate (32-35 g). In France, the mean number of eggs per female increased from 55 to 75 between 1990 and 2000. Other characters can also be used in selection. As an example, Boyer and Melin (1974) showed a heritability of 0.56 for the flight length. In France the tendency is to have pheasants able to reproduce in the wild. To improve this character, Melin and Damange (1997) selected in captivity on the basis of expression of brooding behaviour, which proved to be successful.

Performance

In aviaries with no artificial light the natural laying period extends from the end of March to the end of July. The number of eggs laid per year varies between 50 and 80 for most of the flocks (Tserveni-Gousi and Yannakopoulos, 1990; Mantovani et al., 1993; Cetin et al., 1997) and depends on the strain and also on the length of the period of collection. Egg weight is about 33 g (Mantovani et al., 1993; Cetin et al., 1997), but can be a lot lighter (23 to 27g, Yang and Kim, 1993). Chicken weight is about 65 % of the egg weight giving chicks of 22 g from normal 33 g eggs (Yang and Kim, 1993). Body weight is highly variable and can depend on the strain, rearing and feeding conditions (Melin and Larbier, 1988; Ricard et al., 1991).

Performance Table

Performance	Optimum	Typical or Moderate	Poor
Eggs
Egg weight (g)	33	30-33	33
Growth
Preweaning growth rate (kg/day) (mammals)	0.0096	0-0	0.0096
Height and Weight
Age at body maturity (months)		9
Body weight female - birth (kg)	0.022	0.019-0.022
Body weight female - mature (kg)	1.15	0.95-1.15
Body weight male - birth (kg)	0.022	0.019-0.022
Body weight male - mature (kg)	1.5	1.5-1.5	1.5

Economic and Socioeconomic Aspects

Pheasants are mostly kept in outdoor aviaries and the investment is low. This makes them suitable for small-scale production. The food conversion ratio is poor and in European conditions the pheasant can be sold only as a game animal. It represents an annual turnover of 600 million francs (about 100 million Euro) in France alone (Melin and Damange, 1997).

Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs

Several gaps in knowledge regarding the impacts of game bird management on non-target species have been identified by Mustin et al. (2011), including: ecological, economic and social trade-offs; effects of medications on non-target organisms; effects of predator control; the persecution of raptors; and biodiversity impacts (at a landscape level) of the release of game birds.

Links to Websites

Name	URL	Comment
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway	https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS)	http://griis.org/	Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list.

References

Aldous EW, Alexander DJ, 2008. Newcastle disease in pheasants (Phasianus colchicus): a review. Veterinary Journal, 175(2):181-185. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/10900233

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Impact Summary

Impact: Economic

Impact: Environmental

Impact on Habitats

Impact on Biodiversity

Threatened Species

Risk and Impact Factors

Invasiveness

Impact outcomes

Impact mechanisms

Likelihood of entry/control

Uses

Economic Value

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Genetics

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