Basella alba (malabar spinach)
Datasheet Types: Host plant, Crop, Invasive species
Abstract
This datasheet on Basella alba covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Management, Genetics and Breeding, Food Quality, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Basella alba L.
- Preferred Common Name
- malabar spinach
- Other Scientific Names
- Basella cordifolia Lam.
- Basella crassifolia Salisb.
- Basella japonica Burm.f.
- Basella lucida L.
- Basella nigra Lour.
- Basella ramosa J.Jacq. ex Spreng.
- Basella rubra L.
- Basella volubilis Salisb.
- Gandola nigra (Lour.) Raf.
- Gandola rubra Rumph. ex L.
- International Common Names
- Englishbuffalo spinachCeylon spinachclimbing spinachcountry spinacheast Indian spinachIndian saagIndian spinachmalabar nightshadered vine spinachslippery vegetableSuriname spinachvine spinach
- Spanishalcaparraespinaca baselaespinaca blancaespinaca Chinaespinaca de Ceilanespinaca de la Chinaespinaca de malabar
- Frenchbasellebaselle blanchebrède d’Angolabrède de malabarepinard de malabar
- Arabicmalabâr
- Chinesechan cailuo kuimu er caishan ts’oizhuan cai
- GermanIndischer SpinatMalabarspinatweisse Beerblum
- Local Common Names
- Bahamaswhite spinach
- Cambodiachrâlong
- Cubaespinaca
- DenmarkIndisk spinatmalabarspinat
- East Africamboga buterezi
- Finlandmalabarinpinnatti
- Germanymalabarspinat
- Indiapui shaakbansalibasala urokbasalacheeralalbachlupaasaangallipaasakkeeraipappadacheerapasalikeerapoi vasalacheerared vine spinachupodikaurok shumbanvalchi bhagivalchi bhagivasalacciravasalakkiraivelbendi
- Indonesiagendolagenjerot
- Italybasellabassella biancaspinaccio d’Americaspinaccio del malabarspinaccio della Cinaspinacio della China
- Japantsuru-murasaki
- Kenyandemra
- Korea, Republic ofrakkyu
- Laospang
- Malaysiagendolaremayongtembayung
- Nepalpoi saag
- NetherlandsbasellaCeylonspinaziemalabar spinazieEoostindische spinazie
- Pakistanpoi
- Philippinesalugbatidundulalibato
- Portugalbacelabertalhabredo de Angolabretalha
- Puerto Ricoacelga trepadorabretañaespinaca de Nueva Zelandialibato
- Russian Federation/Russia (Europe)malabarskij spinat
- Spainespinac de Ceilan
- SwedenIndisk spenatmalabarspenat
- Tanzaniabelagamjogondelema
- Thailandphakpangphakplangphakplang-yai
- Turkeypazu
- USAīnika
- Vietnammong toimùng toi
- EPPO code
- BADAL (Basella alba)
Pictures
Leaves
Basella alba (Malabar spinach); leaves. Burdwan, West Bengal, India. May 2014.
©Joydeep/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
Field crop
Basella alba (Malabar spinach); field crop. Also known as pooi leaf, red vine spinach, creeping spinach or climbing spinach, is a perennial vine found in the tropics where it is widely used as a leaf vegetable. It is a fast-growing, soft-stemmed vine. Dhulagarh, Howrah, India. April 2002.
©Biswarup Ganguly/via wikipedia - CC BY 3.0
Field crop
Basella alba (Malabar spinach); field crop. Also known as pooi leaf, red vine spinach, creeping spinach or climbing spinach, is a perennial vine found in the tropics where it is widely used as a leaf vegetable. It is a fast-growing, soft-stemmed vine. Dhulagarh, Howrah, India. April 2002.
©Biswarup Ganguly/via wikipedia - CC BY 3.0
Habit
Basella alba (Malabar spinach); habit, at Lalbagh Garden, Bangalore, India during the Annual flower show. August 2011.
©Rameshng/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
Vining habit
Basella alba (malabar spinach); vining habit. Wailuku, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Vining habit
Basella alba (Malabar spinach); vining habit. Wailuku, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 4.0
Vining habit
Basella alba (malabar spinach); vining habit. Wailuku, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Basella alba (Malabar spinach); habit, showing flowers and red stems. Chennai, Tamilnadu, India. January 2015.
Public Domain - Released by Dr.S.Soundarapandian/via wikipedia - CC0 1.0
Flowers
Basella alba (Malabar spinach); flowers and leaves. Wailuku, Maui, Hawaii, USA. August 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 4.0
Fruits
Basella alba (Malabar spinach); fruits. Bandlaguda, Rangareddy district, Andhra Pradesh, India. October 2009.
©N. Aditya Madhav (Adityamadhav83)-2009/via wikipedia - CC BY-SA 3.0
Overview
Malabar (Ceylon) spinach, Basella alba, is a fast-growing perennial, often grown as an annual, glabrous, succulent vine, up to 10 m in length. The first harvest of young shoots and leaves can be about 40 days after planting. It probably originated in India and it has grown in South-east Asia, China and India since ancient times. It is propagated from seed or stem cuttings and can be found along roadsides and as a weed on arable land. Basella is now cultivated in Africa, tropical America and tropical Asia, particularly in moist lowlands. The thick fleshy leaves and young shoots are cooked, boiled or fried, and eaten as a slightly mucilaginous vegetable. It is rich in vitamins A and C, iron and calcium.
Summary of Invasiveness
Basella alba is a herbaceous, perennial vine cultivated as a leafy vegetable and ornamental in tropical and subtropical and occasionally extending into temperate regions as an annual. It is listed as a potential environmental weed in Australia and as a weed of sugarcane fields on Iriomote Island, Japan. The species is considered an invasive species in Cambodia, China, Philippines, Taiwan, Hawaii, Cuba, Colombia, Ecuador, French Polynesia, Palau, Papua New Guinea and the US Minor Outlying Islands. Although no details of its invasiveness are provided, B. alba can grow rampantly in ideal conditions and can become invasive if not properly managed when it is in cultivation. Given that species reproduces easily, by seeds and vegetatively, and grows quickly, B. alba has a great capacity to become invasive in suitable areas. More information is needed on this species’ invasiveness and its impacts to properly assess how it is affecting habitats and other species, and determine the risk it poses to countries where it is not yet invasive.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The Basellaceae family comprises four genera and 20 species. Some species from this family were formerly placed in the Chenopodiaceae or Portulacaceae (PIER, 2017).
Basella cananifolia is an invalid name for B. alba (The Plant List, 2013). Linnaeus published B. rubra and B. alba as two distinct species in Species Plantarum, separating them by leaf characters and the stem colour. However, a number of studies since have not found evidence that B. rubra is a distinct species, and it has been reduced to a synonym of B. alba (Deshmukh and Gaikwad, 2014).
Plant Type
Broadleaved
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Vine / climber
Description
The following description is from Flora of Panama (2017):
Succulent glabrous herb becoming a slender, twining vine, the stems at first stout, to 2 cm thick, green, after several months of growth and attaining height of 15-45 cm, narrowing, sometimes abruptly and becoming slender, elongate and climbing. Leaves sessile or short petiolate, 4-7 cm long, entire, fleshy, ovate, often broadly so, the juvenile leaves often larger, apically rounded, obtuse or acute, basally cuneate, truncate, or cordate, the lateral venation somewhat obscure, ca. 5 veins on each side, minor venation obscure; petioles stout, to 8 cm long or wanting. Inflorescences axillary or subterminal spikes to 15 cm long, the rachis stout or slender depending on the maturity of the plant; flowers subsessile or pedicellate on juvenile forms, situated on the apical portion of the rachis; bract scale-like; bracteoles calyx-like, 1-2 mm long, acute. Flowers perfect, sepals white, pink, or red, 3-5 mm long, united to above the middle, urceolate to cylindrical, the 5 lobes broad, short, cucullate; stamens included, inserted at the base of the perianth lobes, the filaments short, the anthers cordate, included; ovary conical, l-locular, sometimes partitioned, the 3 styles slender, papillose pilose. Fruit a dark purple or black baccate drupe, the perianth parts enlarged, succulent and enveloping the globose seed and ovary.
Three types can be distinguished: (i) the most common type with dark green, ovate or almost round leaves; (ii) with red stems and reddish, ovate to almost round leaves, often planted as an ornamental; and (iii) with heart-shaped, dark green leaves (Elzebroek and Wind, 2008).
Distribution
The exact origin of B. alba is not known, and many resources give conflicting information. It has been reported as native to Africa and/or Asia, but without conclusive evidence (PIER, 2017). For example, it is listed as native to the Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia and New Guinea in the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP, 2017), but as introduced in those areas by other sources (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; PIER, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017). Eriksson (2007) reports the species as possibly native to Africa based on the occurrence of what he considers to be natural populations, but he also reports that its cultivation and subsequent naturalization has obscured its origin. Pollen records from Lake Malawi in East Africa provide evidence for B. alba being present in that region during the Pleistocene (DeBusk, 1998). Asia is often attributed as the place of origin of B. alba due to its cultivation in South East Asia and China since ancient times (PROTA, 2017), and as Linnaeus corrected the locality information of the type specimen from Syria to China in the second edition of Species Plantarum (Cook, 2010).
It is now widely cultivated in the tropics, extending to the subtropics and even to temperate zones as an annual (PROTA, 2017). In tropical Africa, it is common in warm, humid regions (PROTA, 2017). The species is present in Asia, Africa, North America, Central America, the Caribbean, South America; Europe, Asia and Oceania (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012; Flora of North America, 2017; India Biodiversity Portal, 2017; PFAF, 2017; PROTA, 2017; PIER, 2017; USDA-ARS, 2017; ZipcodeZoo, 2017).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Basella alba is found in the tropical, subtropical and even temperate areas of all continents; its spread being principally due to its cultivation as an ornamental and its use as a vegetable since ancient times (PFAF, 2017; PROTA, 2017). There is no conclusive evidence as where the species is truly native and it is reported as a pantropical cultivated species (PROTA, 2017).
Basella alba is widely cultivated in Europe, the red stemmed forms in particular are commonly planted as ornamentals, but it is not considered naturalized (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2011; PROTA, 2017). It was being cultivated in gardens in Scotland by 1689 (Robertson, 2003), and was in cultivation in England by 1691 (Winters,1963). It is recorded being grown as a vegetable in France in 1824 and 1829, and a variety from China was introduced in 1839 (Winters,1963). It has been reported as being present as an ornamental in the Caribbean since 1806 (Cleall et al., 1807). It was introduced into the USA by the US Department of Agriculture in 1899 from France, but there are reports of some apparent private purchases prior to 1863 (Winters, 1963).
Introductions
| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Bahamas | 1839 | No | No | Introduced from the East Indies. | ||||
| Cuba | 1921 | Yes | No | New York Botanical Garden (2017) | ||||
| Saint Kitts and Nevis | 1901 | No | No | |||||
| UK | 1928 | No | No | Missouri Botanical Garden (2017) | ||||
| Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 1806 | No | No | Cultivated as an ornamental at the Botanical Garden | ||||
| UK | 1689 | No | No | Scotland | ||||
| France (mainland) | 1824 | No | No | |||||
| USA | 1899 | Yes | No | |||||
Risk of Introduction
Basella alba has a high risk of introduction. The species is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas where it is grown primarily as a vegetable (PROTA, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). It is also widely used as an ornamental worldwide, its popularity extending into temperate areas where grows as an annual (PFAF, 2017). It has the potential to be intentionally introduced into countries or areas where the species is still not reported, as seeds and plants are available in many countries and sold via the internet. The species is also available at local markets and nurseries (PROTA, 2017). B. alba also has commercial potential for other uses in the food, cosmetic and dye industries (PFAF, 2017; PROTA, 2017).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal
Basella alba often grows near rivers and streams so it is possible that it is dispersed by water (PIER, 2017).
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
The fruits are eaten by birds, possibly acting as dispersers (Iplantz, 2020).
Intentional Introduction
Basella alba has been introduced worldwide as an ornamental, a vegetable and to be used in ethnobotany since ancient times (PROTA, 2017).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Small-scale production mixed with other vegetables | Yes | ||
| Digestion and excretion (pathway cause) | Dispersed by birds | Yes | ||
| Disturbance (pathway cause) | Yes | |||
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Possible as it is cultivated as an ornamental | Yes | ||
| Garden waste disposal (pathway cause) | Can reseed in compost, even after two years | Yes | Dave's Garden (2017) | |
| Horticulture (pathway cause) | Red varieties popular in gardening | Yes | Yes | |
| Internet sales (pathway cause) | Seeds and plants sold online | Yes | Yes | |
| Medicinal use (pathway cause) | Used in traditional medicine | Yes | Yes | |
| Nursery trade (pathway cause) | Plants available in nurseries in a number of contries | Yes | Yes | |
| Off-site preservation (pathway cause) | Germplasm stored at various sites | Yes | Yes | |
| Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| People foraging (pathway cause) | In some African countries people forage the leaves of plants growing near houses | Yes | Yes | |
| Seed trade (pathway cause) | Available in seed catalogues | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Possibly in waste associated to its cultivation and consumption | Yes | Dave's Garden (2017) | |
| Floating vegetation and debris (pathway vector) | Possible at it grows near streams and rivers | Yes | ||
| Germplasm (pathway vector) | Germplasm collections available at various sites | Yes | Yes | |
| Mail (pathway vector) | Sold online | Yes | Yes | |
| Soil, sand and gravel (pathway vector) | Possibly in waste associated with its cultivation and consumption | Yes | Dave's Garden (2017) | |
| Water (pathway vector) | Possibly water dispersed as it grows near rivers and streams | Yes |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Basella alba can be confused with Anredera cordifolia. A. cordifolia can be distinguished from B. alba by its slender racemes of pedicellate, non-fleshy flowers (PROTA, 2017).
Habitat
Basella alba is reported as growing in thickets, hills, moist and dry deciduous forests, forest edges, plains, scrub jungle, cliffs, margins of cultivated land, near rivers or streams, cultivated near houses, clearings and disturbed areas (African Plant Database, 2020; India Biodiversity Portal, 2017; PIER, 2017).
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
There are no reports of hybrids in cultivation or in the wild for B. alba (PIER, 2017). The chromosome numbers reported for the species are 2n=44,48 (PROTA, 2017). Germplasm resources are available at The World Vegetable Center and at USDA-ARS facilities (Hughes and Ebert, 2013; USDA-ARS, 2017). DNA barcodes are available for this species at Barcode of Life Data System (BOLDS, 2017).
The species is reported by Ganashan et al. (1996) as showing high genetic diversity in Sri Lanka.
Reproductive Biology
Basella alba reproduces by seeds and vegetatively by stem cuttings and rhizomes (PIER, 2017; PROTA, 2017). It will also form roots when stem nodes touch the ground (Dave’s Garden, 2017). Pollination is cleistogamous although some pollination by short-tongued insects is reported (Bogle, 1969).
No breeding programmes are known to exist, although several seed companies in India and the United States produce seeds to be sold locally and internationally (PROTA, 2017).
Physiology and Phenology
Basella alba will not flower if the length of daylight is more than 13 hours per day (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). It is reported as flowering from May to September and fruiting from July to August (ZipcodeZoo, 2017). The seeds require temperatures of 18 - 21°C and 10-21 days to germinate. Pre-soaking the seeds for 24 hours in warm water will shorten the germination time. The species can produce mature fruits within 70 days of planting in warm climates (PIER, 2017).
Longevity
Basella alba is a perennial vine that is variously reported as being short and long lived (PROTA, 2017; Csurhes and Edwards,1998). If not taken care of, it tends to die back after two or more years. With fertilizers, the plants can be maintained for long periods. In subtropical and temperate regions, it behaves like an annual as it is frost intolerant and will not do well if night temperature drops below 14°C (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017a).
Environmental Requirements
The growth of B. alba is limited by low temperatures, altitudes higher than 500 m and day/night temperature variations (PIER, 2017). Although it is cultivated worldwide up to 2600 m elevation and in tropical, subtropical and temperate areas, the species will grow best in hot, dry to humid climates and in areas below 500 m elevation (PROTA; 2017; ZipcodeZoo, 2017). The optimum mean annual temperatures for B. alba are 23 to 27°C, but it can tolerate a temperature range of 10 to 35°C. It does not tolerate frost and requires a minimum daytime temperature of 15°C. It does not do well if night temperature drops below 14°C, but will tolerate night temperatures occasionally falling below 10°C. It prefers an annual precipitation range of 2000 to 2500 mm, but will tolerate 700 to 4200 mm. The species prefers well-drained fertile sandy loam soils and full sun to light shade situations. It can grow in soils with a pH range of 5.5 – 7, but can tolerate 4.3 - 7.5. It tolerates poor soils and short periods of drought (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). It is intolerant to salinity and standing water (PROTA, 2017).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Tolerated | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Tolerated | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Tolerated | |
| Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60 | -46 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute minimum temperature | 4 | |
| Mean annual temperature | 10 | 35 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | 700 | 4200 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
| Mean annual rainfall | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Winter
Bimodal
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture > heavy
Soil texture
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil reaction > alkaline
Soil drainage > free
Special soil tolerances > infertile
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
Basella alba is resistant to many pests and diseases because of its thick cuticle, but it is susceptible to nematodes (PIER, 2017; PROTA, 2017).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lygus lineolaris (tarnished plant bug) | Herbivore | Leaves Stems | not specific | N | ||
| Liriomyza (leaf miners) | Herbivore | Leaves | not specific | N | ||
| Meloidogyne incognita (root-knot nematode) | Parasite | Roots | not specific | N | ||
| Fusarium solani | Pathogen | Roots | not specific | N | ||
| Cochliobolus lunatus (head mould of grasses, rice and sorghum) | Pathogen | Leaves | not specific | N | ||
| Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi (Jack Beardsley mealybug) | Herbivore | Leaves | not specific | N | ||
| Bipolaris | Pathogen | Leaves | not specific | N | ||
| Alternaria alternata (alternaria leaf spot) | Pathogen | Leaves | not specific | N | ||
| Pythium aphanidermatum (damping-off) | Pathogen | Other/All Stages | not specific | N | ||
| Plectonycha correntina | Herbivore | Leaves | not specific | N | ||
| Cercospora basellae-albae | Pathogen | Leaves | to species | N | ||
| Colletotrichum | Pathogen | Leaves | not specific | N |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Cultural/amenity | Positive |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
| Human health | Positive |
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Gregarious
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Reproduces asexually
Has high genetic variability
Impact mechanisms
Rapid growth
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Economic Value
Basella alba is widely cultivated for its edible leaves (Encyclopedia of Life, 2017; PROTA, 2017). The species is sold at local markets, nurseries and on the internet (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). The leaves can be found in speciality grocery stores, marketed as a vegetable (Encyclopedia of Life, 2017). A red dye, obtained from the fruits, is used as a rouge, ink, food colouring, in cosmetics and as a dye for official seals (Hanelt, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). B. alba seeds are being proposed as a source of non-conventional oils for use in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries (Diemeleou et al., 2014).
Social Benefit
Basella alba is commonly grown as a vegetable and as an ornamental (PROTA, 2017; Useful Tropical Plants, 2017). Its use as a vegetable is popular in Europe, Asia and Africa, being a good source of vitamins A and C, iron and calcium. The leaves are used as a substitute for spinach, hence the use of the word “spinach” as a part of some of its common names. An infusion of the leaves is prepared as a tea substitute. The species is also used as a thickening agent for soups and stews due to its mucilaginous properties (Hanelt, 2017; PROTA, 2017).
Basella alba has been reported as having potential antiulcer, antioxidant, cytotoxic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, nephroprotective and wound healing properties and functioning as a central nervous system depressant(Kumar et al., 2013). The fruit extracts have potential applications as cancer treatments (Kumar et al., 2015).
Almost all parts of the plants are used in traditional medicine, which include being used as a laxative, rubefacient, demulcent, diuretic, febrifuge, an astringent; and to treat conjunctivitis, catarrh, dysentery, diarrhoea, indigestion, constipation, boils and sores and as an antidote to poison (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017; National Parks Board, 2020). The leaves are masticated to cure aphthae in India (Hebbar et al., 2004). A popular postpartum tonic is produced from B. alba in Thailand (Panyaphu et al., 2011). Wang and Ng (2001) report the seeds as having antifungal properties.
In East Africa the plant is given to livestock to increase milk production (PROTA, 2017).
Environmental Services
Basella alba is consumed by mountain gorillas in Africa (Ganas et al., 2009). Extracts from the species have shown to inhibit development in some insects (Haque et al., 2000).
Uses List
Human food and beverage > Vegetable
Materials > Dye/tanning
Materials > Cosmetics
Human food and beverage > Food additive
General > Botanical garden/zoo
Environmental > Amenity
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Leaves (for beverage)
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Forage
Ornamental > Potted plant
Materials > Oils
Ornamental > Seed trade
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures
Basella alba is a fast-growing vine that can be harvested about once a week by removing leaves and young stems. This will both encourage the production of more stems to harvest, keep the plants from taking over large areas (Useful Tropical Plants, 2017).
Biological Control
Plectonycha correntina has been proposed as the biological control of Anredera cordifolia in Argentina (Cagnotti et al., 2007). Since the plant hosts of this insect are restricted to the Basellaceae family, its use as a biological control for B. alba should be studied.
Cultivation
It can be planted in a nursery or directly in the field. For commercial production, densities of 50,000 plants/ha are used. In home gardens, vines are often grown on trellises, but in commercial crops it is usually grown without support. The species thrives under conditions of moderate soil fertility and responds well to N.
Principal sources: Elzebroek and Wind (2008)
Harvesting
Basella is a fast-growing plant, the first harvest of young shoots and leaves can be about 40 days after planting. Subsequently it can be harvested several times until flowering becomes abundant. A good crop can yield about 50 t of young shoots and leaves per hectare. World production data are not available.
Principal sources: Elzebroek and Wind (2008)
Propagation
Basella is propagated from seed or stem cuttings. Germination requires a minimum temperature of 18-21°C.
Principal sources: Elzebroek and Wind (2008)
Nutritional Value
The edible part of fresh Ceylon spinach contains approximately 91% water, 2% protein, 4% carbohydrates, 0.3% fat and 1.3% fibre. It is a source of vitamins A and C, and minerals Ca and Fe (Elzebroek and Wind, 2008).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
The native range of B. alba has not been definitively established. More information about the invasiveness of B. alba and the effects of the species on natural habitats and other species is needed.
.png)
References
Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., Strong, M. T., 2012. Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies.Washington, DC, USA: Smithsonian Institution. 1192 pp. http://botany.si.edu/Antilles/WestIndies/catalog.htm
African Plant Database, 2020. African Plant Database. In: African Plant Database. Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de Geneve & South African National Biodiversity Institute. http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/bd/cjb/africa/recherche.php
Alexander, W. H., 1901. The flora of St. Christopher.Bulletin of the American Geographical Society., 33207-219.
Atlas of Living Australia, 2017. Atlas of Living Australia. In: Atlas of Living Australia.Canberra, ACT, Australia: GBIF.
BOLDS, 2017. Kingdoms of Life being barcoded. In: Kingdoms of Life being barcoded.BOLD Systems. http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_Home
Bogle AL, 1969. The genera of Portulacaceae and Basellaceae in the southeastern United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 50(4) 566-598.
Cagnotti, C., McKay, F., Gandolfo, D., 2007. Biology and host specificity of Plectonycha correntina Lacordaire (Chrysomelidae), a candidate for the biological control of Anredera cordifolia (Tenore) Steenis (Basellaceae).African Entomology, 15(2) 300-309. http://journals.sabinet.co.za/essa
Cleall E, Wadman J, Wadman J, Baker J, Pinney J, Chaffey J, Bond W, Baine WNN, Anderson A, 1807. Papers in colonies and trade. Transactions of the Society, Instituted at London, for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, 25143-212.
Cook A, 2010. Linnaeus and Chinese plants: a test of the linguistic imperialism thesis. Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, 64(2) 121-138.
Csurhes, S., Edwards, R., 1998. Potential environmental weeds in Australia: candidate species for preventive control. Canberra, Australia: Biodiversity Group, Environmental Australia. 202 pp. http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/weeds/publications/books/pubs/potential.pdf
DAISIE, 2017. Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe. In: Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe.http://www.europe-aliens.org/
Dave's Garden, 2017. Dave's Garden. In: Dave's Garden.El Segundo, California, USA: Internet Brands. http://davesgarden.com
DeBusk, G. H., Jr., 1998. A 37,500-year pollen record from Lake Malawcircumflex˜i and implications for the biogeography of afromontane forests.Journal of Biogeography, 25(3) 479-500.
Deshmukh, S. A., Gaikwad, D. K., 2014. A review of the taxonomy, ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Basella alba (Basellaceae).Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science, 4(1) 153-165. http://japsonline.com/admin/php/uploads/1174_pdf.pdf
Diemeleou, C. A., Zoue, L. T., Niamke, S. L., 2014. Basella alba seeds as a novel source of non-conventional oil with beneficial qualities.Romanian Biotechnological Letters, 19(1) 8966-8978. http://www.rombio.eu/vol19nr1/8%20lucr%2013%20Lessoy%20rec%2020%20.10.2013%20ac%204.12.pdf
D’Arcy WG, 1967. Annotated checklist of the dicotyledons of Tortola, Virgin Islands. Rhodora, 69(780) 385-450.
Elzebroek, T., Wind, K., 2008. Guide to cultivated plants. CABI. vii-xi + 516 pp.
Encyclopedia of Life, 2017. Encyclopedia of Life. In: Encyclopedia of Life.http://www.eol.org
Eriksson R, 2007. A synopsis of Basellaceae. Kew Bulletin, 62(2) 297-320.
Euro+Med, 2017. Euro+Med PlantBase - the information resource for Euro-Mediterranean plant diversity. In: Euro+Med PlantBase - the information resource for Euro-Mediterranean plant diversity.http://ww2.bgbm.org/EuroPlusMed
Flora do Brasil, 2017. Brazilian flora 2020. In: Brazilian flora 2020.Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Rio de Janeiro Botanic Garden. http://floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br
Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2017. Flora of China. In: Flora of China.St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2
Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2017. Flora of North America North of Mexico. In: Flora of North America North of Mexico.St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=1
Flora of Panama, 2017. Flora of Panama (WFO). In: Flora of Panama (WFO).St. Louis, Missouri and Cambridge, MA, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden and Harvard University Herbaria. http://www.tropicos.org/Project/FOPWFO
Ganas, J., Nkurunungi, J. B., Robbins, M. M., 2009. A preliminary study of the temporal and spatial biomass patterns of herbaceous vegetation consumed by mountain gorillas in an afromontane rain forest.Biotropica, 41(1) 37-46.
Ganashan P, Balendira S, Dassanayake MD, 1996. Sri Lanka: Country report to the FAO International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources. Leipzig, Germany: FAO International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources. 99 pp.
Gardiner J, Brace LJK, 1889. Provisional list of the plants of the Bahama Islands. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 41349-407.
Gupta, P. C., 1974. Parasitic fungi on medicinal plants from India. III. Some members of Melanconiales and Moniliales.Zeitschrift fur Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, 81(2/3) 90-94.
Hanelt, P., 2017. Mansfeld's World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops. In: Mansfeld's World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops.Gatersleben, Germany: Leibniz Institute of Plant Genetics and Crop Plant Research (IPK). http://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/apex/f?p=185:3:0::NO
Haque, M. A., Nakakita, H., Ikenaga, H., Sota, N., 2000. Development-inhibiting activity of some tropical plants against Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).Journal of Stored Products Research, 36(3) 281-287.
Hebbar, S. S., Harsha, V. H., Shripathi, V., Hegde, G. R., 2004. Ethnomedicine of Dharwad district in Karnataka, India - plants used in oral health care.Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 94(2/3) 261-266.
Hughes, J. d'A., Ebert, A. W., 2013. Research and development of underutilized plant species: the role of vegetables in assuring food and nutritional security. In: Acta Horticulturae [II International Symposium on Underutilized Plant Species: Crops for the Future - Beyond Food Security, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.], No.979 [ed. by Massawe, F., Mayes, S., Alderson, P.]. Leuven, Belgium: International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS). 79-91. http://www.actahort.org/books/979/979_5.htm
India Biodiversity Portal, 2017. Online Portal of India Biodiversity. In: Online Portal of India Biodiversity.http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/list
Iplantz, 2020. Basella alba. Iplantz Useful Plants For Warm Climates. https://www.iplantz.com/plant/203/basella-alba/
Ishimine Y, Aramoto M, Shinzato T, Yamamori N, Yonemori S, 1992. Distribution of cropland weeds and naturalized plants in Iriomote Island and its aspects in emergence.Science bulletin of the College of Agriculture, University of the Ryukyus, 39157-175.
Kumar S, Prasad AK, Iyer SV, Vaidya SK, 2013. Systematic pharmacognostical, phytochemical and pharmacological review on an ethno medicinal plant, Basella alba L.Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, 5(4) 53-58.
Kumar, S. S., Prabhakaran Manoj, Parvatam Giridhar, Richa Shrivastava, Mausumi Bharadwaj, 2015. Fruit extracts of Basella rubra that are rich in bioactives and betalains exhibit antioxidant activity and cytotoxicity against human cervical carcinoma cells.Journal of Functional Foods, 15509-515.
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017. Missouri Botanical Garden Plant Finder. In: Missouri Botanical Garden Plant Finder.St. Louis, MO, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/plantfinder/plantfindersearch.aspx
Missouri Botanical Garden, 2017. Tropicos database. In: Tropicos database.St. Louis, Missouri, USA: Missouri Botanical Garden. http://www.tropicos.org/
National Parks Board, 2020. Flora and fauna web. In: Flora and fauna web. Singapore: National Parks Board. http://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg/Home.aspx
New York Botanical Garden, 2017. The C. Starr Virtual Herbarium. In: The C. Starr Virtual Herbarium.New York, USA: New York Botanical Garden. http://sweetgum.nybg.org/science/vh/
Oviedo Prieto, R., Herrera Oliver, P., Caluff, M. G., et al., 2012. National list of invasive and potentially invasive plants in the Republic of Cuba - 2011. (Lista nacional de especies de plantas invasoras y potencialmente invasoras en la República de Cuba - 2011). Bissea: Boletín sobre Conservación de Plantas del Jardín Botánico Nacional de Cuba., 6Special Issue No. 122-96.
PFAF, 2017. Plants For A Future Database. In: Plants For A Future Database.Dawlish, UK: Plants For A Future. http://www.pfaf.org/USER/Default.aspx
PIER, 2017. Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk. In: Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk.Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: HEAR, University of Hawaii. http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html
PROTA, 2017. PROTA4U web database. In: PROTA4U web database.Wageningen and Nairobi, Netherlands\Kenya: Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. https://www.prota4u.org/database/
Panyaphu, K., Tran Van On, Sirisa-ard, P., Srisa-nga, P., ChansaKaow, S., Nathakarnkitkul, S., 2011. Medicinal plants of the Mien (Yao) in Northern Thailand and their potential value in the primary healthcare of postpartum women.Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 135(2) 226-237.
Robertson FW, 2003. John Adam’s eighteenth-century walled garden at Blair, Kinross. Garden History, 31(1) 48-66.
Sankar, N. R., Sreeramulu, A., Gopal, D. S., Bagyanarayana, G., 2011. First report of leaf blight of Basella alba caused by Alternaria alternata in India.Plant Disease, 95(11) 1476.
Shylesha, A. N., 2013. Host range of invasive Jack Beardsley mealybug, Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi Gimpel and Miller in Karnataka.Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 19(1) 106-107. http://aapmhe.in/index.php/pmhe/article/view/176/168
Singh, A. U., Vinod Kumar, 2012. Studies on the disease complex incidence by Meloidogyne incognita and Fusarium solani on Poi, Basella rubra.Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection, 45(16) 1968-1971.
The Plant List, 2013. The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. In: The Plant List: a working list of all plant species. Version 1.1. Richmond, London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.theplantlist.org
Tojo, M., Yonemoto, K., Kawamura, A., 2006. First report of Pythium aphanidermatum on Basella rubra in Japan.Plant Disease, 90(6) 830.
UK, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2011. Flora Europaea; Database of European Plants (ESFEDS). In: Flora Europaea; Database of European Plants (ESFEDS). http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html
USDA-ARS, 2017. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database. In: Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Online Database.Beltsville, Maryland, USA: National Germplasm Resources Laboratory. https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomysimple.aspx
Useful Tropical Plants, 2017. Useful tropical plants database. In: Useful tropical plants database.K Fern. http://tropical.theferns.info/
WCSP, 2017. World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. In: World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.Richmond, London, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/home.do
Wang HeXiang, Ng TziBun, 2001. Novel antifungal peptides from Ceylon spinach seeds.Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 288(4) 765-770.
Winters, H. F., 1963. Ceylon spinach (Basella rubra).Economic Botany, 17195-9.
Zhang, S., Fu, Y., Mersha, Z., Mo, X., Palmateer, A. J., 2011. First report of a leaf spot on Basella alba caused by a Bipolaris sp. in Florida.Plant Disease, 95(7) 880-881.
ZipcodeZoo, 2017. Basella alba. Bethesda, Maryland, USA: The Bayscience Foundation, Inc. http://zipcodezoo.com/plants
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
Copyright © CABI. CABI is a registered EU trademark. This article is published under a Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
History
Published online: 2 January 2018
Language
English
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
SCITE_
Citations
Export citation
Select the format you want to export the citations of this publication.
EXPORT CITATIONSExport Citation
View Options
View options
Login Options
Check if you access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.