Esox lucius (pike)
Datasheet Types: Natural enemy, Invasive species, Host animal, Threatened species
Abstract
This datasheet on Esox lucius covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Esox lucius Linnaeus, 1758
- Preferred Common Name
- pike
- Other Scientific Names
- Esox boreus Agassiz, 1850
- Esox estor Lesueur, 1818
- Esox lucioides Agassiz & Girard, 1850
- Esox lucius atrox Anikin, 1902
- Esox lucius bergi Kaganowsky, 1933
- Esox lucius lucius wiliunensis Kirillov, 1962
- Esox lucius variegatus Fitzinger, 1832
- Esox nobilior Thompson, 1850
- Esox reichertii baicalensis Dybowski, 1874
- Luccius vorax Rafinesque, 1810
- Lucius lucius (Linnaeus, 1758)
- Trematina foveolata Trautschold, 1884
- International Common Names
- Englishamerican pikecommon pikegreat Lakes pikegreat northern pickerelgreat northern pikejackjackfishpickerelpikesnakewolf
- Spanishlucio
- Frenchbec de canardbekedbrochetbrochet du nordbrouchébrouchetbrouchettagrand brochethechtlanceronpoignardsifflet
- Russianobyknovennaya schukashchukashtschuka
- Local Common Names
- Austriahechtpike
- Azerbaijanshtschuka
- Belarusshtschuka
- Bulgariashtuka
- Canadacinosacinoseocinusèwgrand brochetgreat northern pickerelgreat northern pikehiulikidlûlukakihokjackjackfishkikiyukkiqyôqnorthern pikepickerelpikesioliksiuliksiunsjuliktchinouchaotchukvak
- Canada/Quebeckikiyukkiqyôq
- Czech Republicstika obecná
- Denmarkgedde
- Estoniahaughaukipike
- Finlandhauki
- Francebec de canardbekedbrochetbrochet du nordbrouchébrouchetbrouchettahechtlanceronpoignardsifflet
- GermanybunthechtEuropäischer HechtFlußhechtgrashechtHechtHechtenheektHeichithengstehöchtliedescheckhechtschnockschnöckschnucksnook
- Greecetoúrnazoúrna
- Hungarycsuka
- Icelandgedda
- Iranordak Mahiordakmahishook Chehkhab
- Irelandlius
- Italyluccio
- Japankawakamasu
- Kyrgyzstankadimki chortonshchuka obyknovennaya
- Latvialidakashtschuka
- Lithuanialydeka
- Mongoliapike
- Netherlandssnoek
- Norwaygjedde
- Polandszczupak
- Portugallúcio
- Romaniamarlitastiuca
- Russian Federationnorthern pikeobyknovennaya schukapikeshchuka
- Serbiastuka
- Slovakiastuka obycajná
- Sloveniascuka
- Spainlucio
- Swedengädda
- Turkeyturna baligi
- UKnorthern pikepenhwyadpike
- UK/England and Walespenhwyad
- USAAmerican pikecommon pikeGreat Lakes pikegreat northern pickereljackjackfishnorthern pikepickerelqalrushesheoaksiiliksnakewolf
- USA/Alaskaqalrushesheoaksiilik
- Ukraineshtschuka
- Uzbekistannorthern pike
- Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)stuka
Pictures
Rod caught adult
Esox lucius (pike, northern pike); adult fish, rod caught. Length 115cm, weight 12 kg. Caught in the Kalix River, Sweden. July, 2014.
©CABI/Chris Parker
Adult
Pike (Esox lucius), rod-caught specimen; weight ca. 4.5kg (ca. 10lbs). Buxton, Norfolk, England, 2012
©Michael J. Godard
Summary of Invasiveness
Esox lucius, also known as pike or northern pike, is a highly successful species of brackish and freshwater fish which has been widely introduced and translocated throughout Europe and North America, with several countries reporting adverse ecological impacts after introduction (Welcomme, 1988). Impacts can be either direct, such as by predation, or indirect, such as by causing prey fish to alter their behavior (He and Kitchell, 1990). This piscivorous species has also been shown to significantly reduce the density of prey species and has the potential to cause large-scale changes in fish communities, even resulting in the extinction of some species (He and Kitchell, 1990). Adults of this species feed mainly on fish, but will also feed on frogs and crayfish (Morrow, 1980). Cannibalism is more common in adults (Billard, 1997) but is also known for juveniles. In introduced lakes in the North American arctic it is sometimes the only species present, and in these cases the juveniles will then feed on invertebrates and terrestrial vertebrates (Kottelat and Freyhof, 2007).
Taxonomic Tree
Description
E. lucius has an elongated body which is green to brown on the dorsal surface with lighter flanks bearing whitish spots. The dorsal fin origin is slightly in front of the anal origin and both fins are placed well back to allow for rapid acceleration (Hubbs and Lagler, 2004); the pectoral fins low on the body, based under the opercle with the pelvic fins, which are rounded and paddle-shaped, also low on the body. There are 17-25 dorsal rays, 10-22 anal rays, 19 caudal rays and 57-65 vertebrae. The duckbill-shaped head of E. lucius accounts for 25-30% of an average total length of 46-76 cm (Scott and Crossman, 1973). On the underside of each side of the lower jaw, there are five sensory pores. The body and most of the head are covered with small cycloid scales. The eyes are yellow and highly mobile (Lefevre, 1999).
Pathogens Carried
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
E. lucius has been introduced to waters outside its native range for centuries, mainly due to its popularity as a sport fish. The first recorded introduction of this species was into Ireland during the sixteenth century (Harvey, 2009), although many other transfers were un-recorded or illegal (Aguilar et al. 2005). The many introductions within Europe, and from Europe to other continents, have not all be listed, although some records have been gathered. Welcomme (1988) cites introductions into Ireland, Spain and Italy within Europe, and, further afield, to Madagascar, Morocco, Tunisia and Uganda (Harvey, 2009).
Introductions
| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Algeria | France | 1956 | No | No | Established | |||
| Azores | No | No | Established | |||||
| China | Russian Federation | No | No | |||||
| Ethiopia | Italy | 1938 | No | No | ||||
| Iran | No | No | Established | |||||
| Ireland | UK | 1200's | No | No | Established | |||
| Madagascar | France | 1951 | No | No | ||||
| Morocco | France | 1934 | No | No | ||||
| Portugal | 1962 | No | No | Established | ||||
| Serbia | No | No | ||||||
| Spain | France | 1949 | No | No | Established | |||
| Syria | No | No | Established | |||||
| Tunisia | France | 1966 | No | No | ||||
| Turkey | No | No | Established | |||||
| Uganda | Israel | 1960-1969 | No | No | ||||
Risk of Introduction
Throughout this species’ global introduction, E. lucius has been introduced into lakes predominantly as a fisheries target, with other attempts (usually unsuccessful) into rivers. In Canada, once it is introduced into a new habitat, E. lucius will disperse naturally, taking advantage of whatever pathways exist (Kerr and Lasenby, 2001). There are also numerous examples in the literature of this species spreading throughout interconnected lake and river systems. For example, the spread within the Saskatchewan River drainage in Montana (Dos Santos, 1991) and migration through the Trent Canal system in Ontario, which extended its range to the Kawartha Lakes, resulted in a subsequent reduction in numbers of muskellunge (Esox masquinongy) (DFO 2006).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
E. lucius migrates during the spawning season.
Intentional Introduction
E. lucius has a long history of introductions outside of its native range, mainly as an angling target, but also more recently as an aquacultural species.
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aquaculture (pathway cause) | See distribution table and list | Yes | Yes | |
| Fisheries (pathway cause) | See distribution table and list | Yes | Yes | |
| Food (pathway cause) | See distribution table and list | Yes | Yes | |
| Hunting, angling, sport or racing (pathway cause) | See distribution table and list | Yes | Yes | |
| Intentional release (pathway cause) | See distribution table and list | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aquaculture stock (pathway vector) | All life stages | Yes | Yes | |
| Water (pathway vector) | All life stages by natural dispersal | Yes | Yes |
Invasive Species Threats
Habitat
E. lucius is generally found in clear, shallow, moderately productive, vegetated lakes less than 4 m deep, quiet pools and backwaters of creeks, and small to large rivers (Page and Burr, 1991). It occasionally enters brackish water in the Baltic. It does not generally undertake long migrations, but a few may move considerable distances (Morrow, 1980).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brackish | Inland saline areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural | |
| Freshwater | ||||
| Freshwater | Lakes | Principal habitat | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Reservoirs | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural | |
| Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Ponds | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural | |
| Brackish |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
E. lucius has a chromosome number of 25 haploid/gametic (n) and 50 diploid/zygotic (2n) (Arkhipchuk, 1999). It is known to hybridise with amur pike (E. reichertii) as well as grass pickerel (E. vermiculatus). The genetics of this species have been intensively studied and the genetic variation among different populations has been explored (Wang et al., 2011).
Reproductive Biology
E. lucius are batch spawners that move inshore or upstream to flooded or marsh areas to spawn (Scott and Crossman, 1973). Spawning normally occurs during daylight hours, in areas of vegetation and in shallow water <17.8 cm). Eggs and sperm (5 to 60 eggs/spawn) are released simultaneously, with the eggs deposited in the flooded areas on submerged vegetation over a period of 2-5 days. Spawning takes place every few minutes, for up to several hours, over a period of several days until all eggs are extruded.
Associations
Over the years, fish pathologists have been greatly interested in the E. lucius as it hosts a lot of parasites such as fungi, protozoa, various worms, leeches, molluscs and crustacea. Pike are also susceptible to numerous bacterial and viral diseases and tumorous lesions. 18 species of metazoan parasite, including the common bacterium Pseudomonas hydrophila (Scott and Crossman, 1973), the trematode worm Uvulifer ambloplitis and the nematode Raphidascaris acus (found in the gastrointestinal tract and liver; Poole and Dick, 1986) were identified by Watson and Dick (1980).
Environmental Requirements
E. lucius are generally found in shallow, moderately productive, vegetated waters less than 4 m deep. They are most commonly found in lakes but may also be found in rivers; however, they avoid fast water and seek out vegetated side channels, sloughs and other backwaters.
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| C - Temperate/Mesothermal climate | Average temp. of coldest month > 0°C and < 18°C, mean warmest month > 10°C | Preferred | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Preferred | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Preferred | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Preferred | |
| D - Continental/Microthermal climate | Continental/Microthermal climate (Average temp. of coldest month < 0°C, mean warmest month > 10°C) | Preferred | |
| Df - Continental climate, wet all year | Continental climate, wet all year (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, wet all year) | Preferred | |
| Ds - Continental climate with dry summer | Continental climate with dry summer (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry summers) | Preferred | |
| Dw - Continental climate with dry winter | Continental climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters) | Preferred |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Mean annual temperature | 0.1 | 29.4 |
Water Tolerances
| Parameter | Minimum value | Maximum value | Typical value | Status | Life stage | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | 4 | Optimum | Casselman (1978) | |||
| Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | 0.3 | Harmful | Casselman (1978) | |||
| Salinity (part per thousand) | 6 | Harmful | Larsen et al. (2005) | |||
| Water pH (pH) | 7 | Optimum | Tolerates pH range of pH 5-9.5 (Scott and Crossman, 1973) | |||
| Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 10 | 19 | Optimum | Tolerates 0.1-29.4°C (Casselman, 1978) |
List of Diseases and Disorders
Natural enemy of
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Positive |
| Environment (generally) | Negative |
Impact: Economic
Pike aquaculture is used primarily as a source of fingerlings used to stock water bodies for recreational fishing, although in Finland, commercial pike fishery has also benefited from these stockings (Mann 1996); there is therefore an economic benefit for both recreational and commercial fishermen, as well as the creation of jobs in the aquaculture industry.
Impact: Environmental
Impact on Biodiversity
E. lucius is able to hybridise with both the muskellunge (E. masquinongy) and the chain pickerel (E. niger). Female hybrids of pike and musky (tiger muskellunge) are fertile and capable of back-crossing (Becker, 1983). The main impacts of E. lucius on biodiversity are through alteration of fish communities through predation (i.e. cyprinids or salmonids) and competition with other esocids (i.e. muskellunge).
Impact: Social
Throughout Europe and North America E. lucius is a highly sought-after recreational fishing species, as well as a commercially sought-after species in many countries. In addition to its value for commercial fishermen, recreational fishing and tourism may create a demand not only for food, accommodation and transportation, but also for related recreational activities such as camping, boating, canoeing, etc., all of which may provide economic opportunities locally.
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Tolerant of shade
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Highly mobile locally
Long lived
Impact outcomes
Altered trophic level
Conflict
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission
Hybridization
Predation
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Highly likely to be transported internationally illegally
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Difficult/costly to control
Uses List
General > Sport (hunting, shooting, fishing, racing)
Human food and beverage > Meat/fat/offal/blood/bone (whole, cut, fresh, frozen, canned, cured, processed or smoked)
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Prevention
Rapid responses to E. lucius is established at the national level. However, there is little public awareness of the risks posed by this species.
As established populations are difficult and costly to control, further introductions or stocking should be avoided.
Physical/Mechanical Control
Electrofishing and seine netting can both be used.
Movement Control
In Alaska the State Legislature strengthened the penalty for illegal stocking of non-indigenous fish to a class A misdemeanor, which allows the court to seek restitution for damages to the fishery and expenses for removing introduced fish.
Chemical Control
The only effective method of fish eradication is the application of rotenone, a piscicide that is also toxic to non target species. However, in Lake Davis in California an attempt was made to eradicate E. lucius using rotenone which proved unsuccessful. Since then, other attempts have been made at this site, employing techniques such as trapping, electrofishing and even explosives.
Monitoring and Surveillance
Both radio and acoustic telemetry can be used.
Natural Food Sources
| Food source | Life stages | Contribution to total food intake (%) | Feeding methods | Feeding frequency | Feeding characteristics | Details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| asellids | Aquatic|Fry | |||||
| chironimids | Aquatic|Fry | |||||
| cladocerans | Aquatic|Fry | |||||
| crayfish | Aquatic|Adult | |||||
| ducks | Aquatic|Adult | |||||
| fish | All Stages | |||||
| frogs | Aquatic|Adult | |||||
| leech | Aquatic|Adult | |||||
| mice | Aquatic|Adult | |||||
| muskrat | Aquatic|Adult | |||||
| zooplankton | Aquatic|Fry |
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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