Equus asinus (donkeys)
Datasheet Types: Invasive species, Host animal
Abstract
This datasheet on Equus asinus covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Biology & Ecology, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Equus asinus Linnaeus, 1758
- Preferred Common Name
- donkeys
- International Common Names
- EnglishAfrican wild assassassesdonkey
- Local Common Names
- Italyasino
- DADIS local name
- Abkhasian
- DADIS local name
- Achdari
- DADIS local name
- Akhdari
- DADIS local name
- American Spotted
- DADIS local name
- Amiatina
- DADIS local name
- Andalusian Donkey
- DADIS local name
- Apulian
- DADIS local name
- Armenian
- DADIS local name
- Ase Mallorquí
- DADIS local name
- Asian Wild Ass
- DADIS local name
- Asinara
- DADIS local name
- Asino Cagusano
- DADIS local name
- Asino di Martina Franca
- DADIS local name
- Azerbaijan
- DADIS local name
- Baluchi Wild Ass
- DADIS local name
- Baudet du Poitou
- DADIS local name
- Brazilian
- DADIS local name
- Bukhara
- DADIS local name
- Bukharskaya
- DADIS local name
- Burro Majorero
- DADIS local name
- Carbajalina
- DADIS local name
- Common
- DADIS local name
- Dagestan
- DADIS local name
- Domestic Balkan donkey
- DADIS local name
- Dubbolawi
- DADIS local name
- Equus africanus africanus Fitzinger
- DADIS local name
- Four-Eyebrows
- DADIS local name
- Garañón Leonés
- DADIS local name
- Georgian
- DADIS local name
- Ghor-Khar
- DADIS local name
- Guanchzhun
- DADIS local name
- Half-Ass
- DADIS local name
- Hemione
- DADIS local name
- Hemippe De Syrie
- DADIS local name
- Indian Onager
- DADIS local name
- Jegue
- DADIS local name
- Jerico
- DADIS local name
- Jumento Nordestino
- DADIS local name
- Kakhetian
- DADIS local name
- Kara-Kalpak
- DADIS local name
- Kazakh
- DADIS local name
- Khulan
- DADIS local name
- Khur
- DADIS local name
- Kirgiz
- DADIS local name
- Kuan-chung
- DADIS local name
- Kwanchung
- DADIS local name
- Lagoa dourada
- DADIS local name
- Leonesa
- DADIS local name
- Majorero ass
- DADIS local name
- Makadi
- DADIS local name
- Martinese
- DADIS local name
- Mary
- DADIS local name
- Mediterranean
- DADIS local name
- Merv
- DADIS local name
- Meskhet-Javakhet
- DADIS local name
- Mesopotamian Onager
- DADIS local name
- Moldoveneasca Localá
- DADIS local name
- Mongolian Wild Ass
- DADIS local name
- Northeastern
- DADIS local name
- Persian
- DADIS local name
- Persian Onager
- DADIS local name
- Persian Wild Ass
- DADIS local name
- Poitou
- DADIS local name
- Ragusan
- DADIS local name
- Raza Asinia Catalana
- DADIS local name
- Shindawi Riding Ass
- DADIS local name
- Sicilian
- DADIS local name
- South Shanxi
- DADIS local name
- Sudanese Riding
- DADIS local name
- Swallow-Coat
- DADIS local name
- Syrian Onager
- DADIS local name
- Tajik
- DADIS local name
- Thor Char
- DADIS local name
- Transcaspian Onager
- DADIS local name
- Turkmen
- DADIS local name
- Uzbek
- DADIS local name
- Viterbo Grey
- DADIS local name
- Zamorana
- DADIS main name
- Abkhazskaya
- DADIS main name
- Abyssinian
- DADIS main name
- Algerian
- DADIS main name
- Anatolian
- DADIS main name
- Anger
- DADIS main name
- Armyanskaya
- DADIS main name
- Asino dell'Amiata
- DADIS main name
- Asino dell'Asinara
- DADIS main name
- Asino Sardo
- DADIS main name
- Asno Andaluz
- DADIS main name
- Asno de las Encartaciones
- DADIS main name
- Azerbaidzhanskaya
- DADIS main name
- Baladi
- DADIS main name
- Benderi
- DADIS main name
- Burro
- DADIS main name
- Caninde
- DADIS main name
- Cardao
- DADIS main name
- Cariovilli
- DADIS main name
- Catalana
- DADIS main name
- Chigetai
- DADIS main name
- Comune
- DADIS main name
- Cyprus
- DADIS main name
- Dagestanskaya
- DADIS main name
- Damascus
- DADIS main name
- Dezhou
- DADIS main name
- Domaci balk. magarac
- DADIS main name
- Dongolawi
- DADIS main name
- Egyptian
- DADIS main name
- Etbai
- DADIS main name
- Grigio viterbese
- DADIS main name
- Gruzinskaya
- DADIS main name
- Guanzhong
- DADIS main name
- Hamadan
- DADIS main name
- Hassawi
- DADIS main name
- Indian
- DADIS main name
- Indian Wild Ass
- DADIS main name
- Iranian
- DADIS main name
- Iranian Onager
- DADIS main name
- Jiami
- DADIS main name
- Jinnan
- DADIS main name
- Kakhetinskaya
- DADIS main name
- Kara-Kalpakskaya
- DADIS main name
- Kashan
- DADIS main name
- Kassala
- DADIS main name
- Kazakhskaya
- DADIS main name
- Kiang
- DADIS main name
- Kirgizskaya
- DADIS main name
- Kulan
- DADIS main name
- Libyan
- DADIS main name
- Majorera
- DADIS main name
- Mallorquina
- DADIS main name
- Mammoth Jack Stock
- DADIS main name
- Martina Franca
- DADIS main name
- Maryiskaya
- DADIS main name
- Masai
- DADIS main name
- Meskhet- Dzhavakhetskaya
- DADIS main name
- Meskhet-Dzhavakhetskaya
- DADIS main name
- Miniature
- DADIS main name
- Moldavian Local
- DADIS main name
- Moroccan
- DADIS main name
- Muscat
- DADIS main name
- Native of North Africa
- DADIS main name
- Nordestina
- DADIS main name
- Nubian Wild Ass
- DADIS main name
- Paulista
- DADIS main name
- Pega
- DADIS main name
- Poitevin
- DADIS main name
- Puttalam Buruwa
- DADIS main name
- Qaramani
- DADIS main name
- Ragusana
- DADIS main name
- Riffawi
- DADIS main name
- Romagnola
- DADIS main name
- Romagnolo
- DADIS main name
- Saidi
- DADIS main name
- Sant'Alberto
- DADIS main name
- Sennar
- DADIS main name
- Somali
- DADIS main name
- Somali Wild Ass
- DADIS main name
- Spotted
- DADIS main name
- Standard
- DADIS main name
- Subyani
- DADIS main name
- Sudanese Pack
- DADIS main name
- Syrian
- DADIS main name
- Syrian Wild Ass
- DADIS main name
- Tadzhikskaya
- DADIS main name
- Tibetan
- DADIS main name
- Toposa
- DADIS main name
- Tswana
- DADIS main name
- Tunisian
- DADIS main name
- Turkmenskaya
- DADIS main name
- Uzbekskaya
- DADIS main name
- Xinjiang
- DADIS main name
- Zamorano-Leonés
Pictures
Donkey
Equus asinus (donkeys) resemble horses and are characterised by their large head, long ears and cow-like tail. They can be found in tropical savannas and arid hill country in Australia and other arid and desert habitats elsewhere in its range. In its invasive range, Equus asinus have deleterious and potentially irreversible impacts on native flora and fauna. Damage has been documented in plant communities, soils, wildlife and water quality. Management of this species can be difficult. Cultural pressures prevent lethal methods of management from being used. Typical management techniques involve removing the species from their natural habitat and placing them in reserves where they will not pose a threat. The growing number of feral donkeys, roaming free across Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia propitiate extensive hybridisation with their wild relative Equus africanus and thus contribute to the extinction of the E. africanus.
©Jim Bremner
A herd of donkeys
A herd of feral working donkeys, Manifa, Eastern Saudi Arabia, June 1978.
©A.R. Pittaway
Summary of Invasiveness
Equus asinus (donkeys) resemble horses and are characterised by their large head, long ears and cow-like tail. They can be found in tropical savannas and arid hill country in Australia and other arid and desert habitats elsewhere in its range. In its invasive range, Equus asinus have deleterious and potentially irreversible impacts on native flora and fauna. Damage has been documented in plant communities, soils, wildlife and water quality. Management of this species can be difficult. Cultural pressures prevent lethal methods of management from being used. Typical management techniques involve removing the species from their natural habitat and placing them in reserves where they will not pose a threat. The growing number of feral donkeys, roaming free across Sudan, Eritrea and Somalia propitiate extensive hybridisation with their wild relative Equus africanus and thus contribute to the extinction of the E. africanus.
Taxonomic Tree
Description
Equus asinus resemble horses and are characterised by their large head, long ears and cow-like tail. Colours can very from black, white, paint and all shades of brown and grey, however the most common is a mousey grey colour (called dun grey). Many E. asinus are spotted, speckled or striped. Most solid-colour E. asinus have a dark dorsal stripe from mane to tail and a dark stripe across their shoulders. They have an erect mane and lack the forelock of a horse. The hair can be straight, curly, short and wiry, or long and woolly. Wild E. asinus average 200cm in body length, 45cm in tail length, 125cm at the shoulder, and weigh 250kg. Domestic breed size varies greatly, depending on breed. Miniatures, the smallest breed of E. asinus, stand less than 92cm (36 inches) at the shoulder and weigh less than 180kg (400 pounds). Standard E. asinus, the average-sized breed, range from 92cm to 123cm (36 inches to 48 inches) and weigh 180 to 225kg (400 to 500 pounds). Mammoth stock, the largest breed of E. asinus, stand at an average height of 143cm (56 inches) and weigh about 430kg (950 pounds). There is generally very little sexual dimorphism in E. asinus. Wild E. asinus have the longest and narrowest hooves of any Equus species (Huggins 2002).
Pathogens Carried
Distribution
Native range: Africa (Huggins, 2002).
Known introduced range: Asia, Australasia-Pacific, North America (Department of the Environment and Heritage 2004; Rudman 1998; Smithsonian Institution 1993).
Known introduced range: Asia, Australasia-Pacific, North America (Department of the Environment and Heritage 2004; Rudman 1998; Smithsonian Institution 1993).
The Distribution Table and map include records of presence of Equus asinus from ISSG (2011) with native/introduced and invasive statuses, supplemented by records of presence mined from the CAB Abstracts database which are not restricted to feral populations. However, these sources provide an incomplete global distribution for this very widespread domesticated species.
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Local dispersal methods
Natural dispersal (local):
Natural dispersal (local):
Habitat
Huggins (2002) states that, "Domestic Equus asinus are widely distributed and can be found almost everywhere in the world. However, true wild E. asinus originated in the hilly, undulating deserts of northern Africa and the Arabian peninsula and are well-adapted for life in the desert. Domestic E. asinus prefer warm, dry climates and, if left to become feral, they will return to such a habitat, like the feral E. asinus of Death Valley National Park in California. Deserts are characterized by low, unpredictable rainfall and sparse vegetation."
The Department of the Environment and Heritage (2004) states that in Australia, "Feral E. asinus prefer tropical savannas and arid hill country. Drought and severe bushfires are the only significant natural threats to feral E. asinus." In Europe, the donkey is considered to be the most threatened livestock species and is now under protection of the European Union and its measures to conserve local animal resources.
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Deserts | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Nutrition
Equus asinus are grazing herbivores, with large, flat-surfaced teeth adapted for tearing and chewing plant matter. Their primary food is grass, but they also eat other shrubs and desert plants. Like many other grazing animals, they grasp the plant first with their muscular lips, pull it into their mouth, and then tear it off with their teeth. In a study of feral E. asinus in Arizona, they were found to eat 33% forbs and 40% browse (Huggins 2002).
Reproduction
Feral and free-ranging E. asinus have a territorial social system (McDonnell 1998). The composition and degree of stability of territorial groups varies with particular populations studied. In some populations, each breeding male holds his own territory through which solitary females with their young pass (Woodward, 1979). Jennies in estrus are bred by the breeding male holding the particular territory. Populations have been identified in which jennies tend to stay within particular territories and have a more stable affiliation with the breeding male and other jennies in the territory, in a semi-harem type territorial breeding group (McCort, 1980). In some populations, there are groups in which subordinate males are allowed to breed some of the jennies within the territory of a dominant jack, usually following mating by the dominant jack (McCort, 1980). Territorial boundaries appear to be announced acoustically and in some instances marked with fecal piles." Studies show that ovarian activity, pregnancy and parturition appear to be much less seasonal in domestic and feral E. asinus than in wild asses. The short-day anovulatory season in domestic jennies is approximately 165 days, with a high incidence of anovulatory estrus which is brief and frequent. The long-day ovulatory season then is approximately 200 days. The interovulatory interval is approximately 24-25 days. The mean length of ovulatory estrus is about 6 days, with ovulation within the last 1-2 days of estrus. Gestation length is 12 months (McDonnell, 1998).
Lifecycle stages
Female Wild Equus asinus give birth to one colt each year, which grows to an average weight of about 350 pounds. Since feral E. asinus have no natural predator, competitor or common diseases, most young E. asinus reach maturity and may live as long as 25 years in the wild (Royo UNDATED).
List of Diseases and Disorders
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Environment (generally) | Negative |
Impact
Feral Equus asinus populations in Mojave are having deleterious and potentially irreversible impacts on native flora and fauna. Damage has been documented in plant communities, soils, wildlife, and water quality. Of particular concern is the competition for forage, which is negatively affecting the threatened desert tortoise (see Gopherus agassizii in IUCN Red List of Threatened Species). An adult E. asinus consumes as much as 2,722kg (6,000 pounds) of forage per year, and the herds reproduce at an alarming rate. Reproduction estimates for Mojave National Preserve suggest that the population grows an average of 25% each year (Stubbs, 1999). Heavy grazing on the native vegetation by feral populations of E. asinus allows non-native annuals to displace native perennials, and costs the nation an estimated $5 million per year in forage losses, implying that these species eat forage worth US$100 per animal per year. They also diminish the primary food sources of native bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) and seed-eating birds, reducing the abundance of these natives (McNeely (undated); Pimentel et al. 2000). The Department of the Environment and Heritage (2004) Australia classify feral E. asinus as serious environmental pests. They cause erosion and damage vegetation with their hard hoofs. They damage and foul waterholes, and introduce weeds through seeds carried in their dung, manes and tails. E. asinus may also compete for food and water with native animals. The impact of E. asinus on native grasses, herbs, shrubs and drinkable water is most pronounced during drought. They can quickly degrade areas close to remote waterholes, which during a drought become refuges critical to the survival of many native animals and plants. Without these refuges, native plants and animals may become locally extinct. E. asinus also have an impact on the productivity of farming land.
Results of a study in the high altitude Spiti Valley, Indian Trans-Himalaya, on the competition between seven species of livestock (Equus asinus being one of the seven) and the wild herbivore mountain ungulate bharal (Pseudois nayaur) showed that there is dietry overlap among these herbivore species. The study concluded that this high diet overlap between livestock and bharal, together with density-dependent forage limitation, results in resource competition and a decline in bharal density (Mishra et al. 2004).
Threatened Species
| Threatened species | Where threatened | Mechanisms | References | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gopherus agassizii (desert tortoise) | Competition - monopolizing resources | |||
| Acanthoscyphus parishii var. goodmaniana (Cushenbury oxytheca) | California | Herbivory/grazing/browsing | ||
| Phacelia insularis var. insularis (island phacelia) | California | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration | ||
| Taraxacum californicum (California taraxacum) | California | Herbivory/grazing/browsing | ||
| Thelypodium stenopetalum (slender-petaled mustard) | California | Herbivory/grazing/browsing | ||
| Thymophylla tephroleuca (ashy dogweed) | Texas | Herbivory/grazing/browsing | ||
| Castilleja cinerea (ash-grey paintbrush) | California | Herbivory/grazing/browsing | ||
| Erigeron parishii (Parish's daisy) | California | Herbivory/grazing/browsing | ||
| Festuca ligulata (Guadalupe fescue) | Texas | Herbivory/grazing/browsing | ||
| Townsendia aprica (last chance townsendia) | Utah | Ecosystem change / habitat alteration |
Risk and Impact Factors
Impact outcomes
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Herbivory/grazing/browsing
Uses
In Australia Equus asinus serve as pack animals and in haulage teams. E. asinus played a very important role in developing long-distance trade in Egypt, because of their weight-bearing capacity and their adaptation for desert travel. In ancient Egypt, female E. asinus were kept as dairy animals. E. asinus milk is higher in sugar and protein than cow's milk. The milk was also used for cosmetic and medicinal purposes. E. asinus meat was eaten as food by many people. There were domesticated E. asinus in Europe by the second millenium B.C. and the first E. asinus came to the New World with Christopher Columbus in 1495. E. asinus were introduced to the United States with Mexican explorers. Many of the wild E. asinus in the southwestern United States are descendants of escaped or abandoned E. asinus brought by Mexican explorers during the Gold Rush. Miniature E. asinus are very popular as companion animals and for show (Department of the Environment and Heritage 2004; Huggins 2002).
Uses List
General > Working animals (miscellaneous)
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Physical: The Mojave National Preserve have been provided with funding from the Natural Resource Preservation Program to capture and remove all of its 1,300 remaining burros over a three-year period from 1999 through 2001. Geographic barriers and existing highway fences outside the park are designed to keep other E. asinus out of the preserve (Stubbs 1999). Stubbs (1999) observes that, "The greatest challenge and potential impediment to a successful E. asinus removal program is placement of the animals once they are captured". In Australia, drought has a severe impact on E. asinus. During drought many individuals can die, mainly from starvation, lack of water and eating toxic plants that they usually avoid. They gather round waterholes where they are often culled for humane reasons (Department of the Environment and Heritage 2004). Herds are often mustered and usually some of the younger are turned into pets. Trapping may be less stressful than mustering, but there are animal welfare concerns about the handling of feral E. asinus in traps and during transport to abattoirs. Biological: Fertility control is a non-lethal approach to feral horse management but it is currently of limited use. Fertility control techniques are difficult to administer to large numbers of feral E. asinus and the treatment would need to be repeated often to be effective. It is not yet known whether such techniques can reduce the environmental damage caused by a population of feral E. asinus in an area of high conservation value.
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Bibliography
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References
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Published online: 15 September 2010
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