Sacciolepis indica (glen woodgrass)
Datasheet Types: Invasive species, Pest
Abstract
This datasheet on Sacciolepis indica covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase
- Preferred Common Name
- glen woodgrass
- Other Scientific Names
- Aira indica L. (1753)
- Hymenachne indica (L.) Buse (1854)
- Hymenachne phalarioides (Roem. & Schut) Nees (1829)
- Neurachne peekelii Lauterb. (1911)
- Panicum angustum Trin. (1835)
- Panicum arcuatum R. Br. (1810)
- Panicum conglomeratum L. (1771)
- Panicum contractum Wright & Arn. ex Nees (1836)
- Panicum glaucidulum Peter (1930)
- Panicum glomeratum (L.) Salisb. (1798)
- Panicum glomeratum Trin. (1826)
- Panicum incurvum L. ex Munro (1862)
- Panicum indicum (L.) L. (1771)
- Panicum indicum Mill. (1768)
- Panicum indicum var. angustum (Trin.) Hook. f. (1897)
- Panicum indicum var. brachiatum Hook. f. (1900)
- Panicum indicum var. elatum Hook. f. (1896)
- Panicum indicum var. oryzetorum Makino (1910)
- Panicum indicum var. pilosum Hook. f. (1896)
- Panicum indicum var. villosum Hook. f. (1896)
- Panicum johannae L. ex Munro (1862)
- Panicum microstachyum Lam. (1791)
- Panicum myuros Lam. (1791)
- Panicum oryzetorum Makino ex Honda (1923)
- Panicum pergracile Chiov. (1928)
- Panicum phleoides R. Br. (1810)
- Panicum spicatum (L.) Farw. (1930)
- Sacciolepis angusta (Trin.) Stapf (1920)
- Sacciolepis auriculata Stapf (1920)
- Sacciolepis brachiata (Hook. f.) Senaratna (1956)
- Sacciolepis claviformis B. K. Simon (1921)
- Sacciolepis contracta (Wright & Arn. ex Nees) Hitchc. (1922)
- Sacciolepis glabra Santos (1943)
- Sacciolepis gracilis Stent & J.M. Rattray (1933)
- Sacciolepis indica subsp. oryzetorum (Makino) T. Koyama (1987)
- Sacciolepis indica var. intermedia S. M. Almeida (1986)
- Sacciolepis indica var. oryzetorum (Makino) Ohwi (1953)
- Sacciolepis indica var. turgida (Ridl.) Gilliland (1964)
- Sacciolepis indica var. villosa (Hook. f.) Ohwi (1971)
- Sacciolepis inidica var. angusta (Trin.) Keng (1957)
- Sacciolepis oryzetora (Makino) Honda (1923)
- Sacciolepis oryzetorum (Makino) Honda (1923)
- Sacciolepis pergracilis Chiov. (1928)
- Sacciolepis spicata (L.) Honda (1930)
- Sacciolepis spicata (L.) Honda ex Masam. ([1929] 1930)
- Sacciolepis turgida Ridl. (1925)
- Sacciolepis turgida var. repens Ridl. (1925)
- Sporobolus setarioides Peter (1928)
- International Common Names
- EnglishChase's glenwood grassglenwood grassglenwoodgrassIndian cupscale grass
- Chinesenang ying cao
- Local Common Names
- Japanhai-numeri-gusa
- Papua New Guineadoehoet ihoer tihoesnongo
- Philippinesbuntot-pusa
Pictures
Habit
Sacciolepis indica (Glenwood grass); habit. MISC LZ Piiholo, Maui, Hawaii, USA. January, 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Habit
Sacciolepis indica (Glenwood grass); habit. West Maui, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February, 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Close-up of nodes, ligules and leaves
Sacciolepis indica (Glenwood grass); close-up of nodes, ligules and leaves. Kaapahu Haleakala National Park, Maui, Hawaii, USA. February, 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2009 - CC BY 3.0
Seedheads
Sacciolepis indica (Glenwood grass); seedheads. Wailua, Maui, Hawaii, USA. September, 2014.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2014 - CC BY 3.0
Seedheads
Sacciolepis indica (Glenwood grass); close-up of seedheads. Wailua, Maui, Hawaii, USA. September, 2014.
©Forest & Kim Starr-2014 - CC BY 3.0
Summary of Invasiveness
S. indica is an annual C3 grass (Aliscioni et al., 2003; De Gennaro, 2011). It is highly variable in size, spikelet length and pubescence, and it flowers sporadically throughout the year (Simon and Alfonso, 2012). S. indica is found in tropical and subtropical rainforests, tropical and subtropical sub-humid woodlands, and coastal grasslands.
S. indica is native to the south-east Asian tropics. PIER (2013) also reports it as native to East Asia, Australia and some Pacific islands. It has been introduced to tropical regions of Africa, to India, New Zealand, several Pacific islands, south-east USA, the Caribbean and parts of South and Central America. S. indica is recognized as an agricultural and naturalized weed (Randall, 2012). It is a weed of rice in Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia (Moody, 1989).
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase belongs to the large tribe of Paniceae. The genus name Sacciolepis Nash (1901) is derived from the Greek sakkion (a small bag) combined with lepis (scale), alluding to the saccate upper glume. The species name comes from the Latin word for Indian, indica.
S. indica (L.) Chase has 49 synonyms ranging through 6 genera. Aria indica is the basionym for Sacciolepis indica (IPNI, 2012; Tropicos, 2012). S. indica is in the family Poaceae, subfamily Panicoideae, and tribe Paniceae. The genus Sacciolepis is occasionally, though rarely, spelled Saccolepis (Simon, 1972; Weakley, 2012).
Linnaeus described Sacciolepis indica (L.) as Aira spicata L. 1753 (Sp. PI. 63). In the Errata at the end of Vol. 2, Linnaeus noted that ‘spicatum’ is changed to ‘indicum’, presumably because of another Aira spicata on page 64. Chase (1908) records an entry by Hitchcock in his notebook: ‘The specimen in the Linnaean herbarium is a delicate creeping or spreading plant with many spikes about 1 cm long with only a few spikelets’. The entry is labelled in Linnaeus' hand ‘Panicum indicum’. Aira has been crossed out and indica changed to indicum (Chase, 1908).
S. indica is monophyletic with high support. It is established in a clade in Paniceae with S. clatrata, S. indica, S. myosuroides and S. vilvoides (Gennaro and Scataglini, 2012).
Plant Type
Annual
Grass / sedge
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Description
S. indica is a tufted mostly glabrous annual that can grow to 0.6 m high.
Descriptions of S. indica are widely varied in detail. The following description is taken from Flora Zambesiaca (1989):
S. indica is a decumbent or ascending annual. Culms 10-100 cm high, often with aerial roots from the lower nodes. Leaf laminae broadly linear, not papillose nor the nerves raised, with or without sheath auricles up to 2 mm long. Panicle 1-13 cm long, cylindrical to oblong. Spikelets 1.5-3 mm long, narrowly ovate, glabrous or pubescent.
Inflorescence a panicle. Panicle spiciform; linear, or oblong; 1-13 cm long. Primary panicle branches accrescent to a central axis; with lateral stumps on axis. Panicle axis with rounded ribs. Spikelets solitary. Fertile spikelets pedicelled. Spikelets comprising 1 basal sterile florets; 1 fertile florets; without rhachilla extension. Spikelets ovate; laterally compressed; gibbous; 2-3 mm long; falling entire.
Glumes reaching apex of florets; thinner than fertile lemma. Lower glume ovate; 0.33-0.66 times the length of spikelet; hyaline; without keels; 3-5-veined. Lower glume apex acute. Upper glume elliptic; gibbous; 1.3-2 times the length of adjacent fertile lemma; 1 length of spikelet; membranous; without keels; 5-7-veined. Upper glume lateral veins ribbed. Upper glume surface glabrous, or pubescent. Upper glume apex acute.
Basal sterile florets male, or barren; with palea. Lemma of lower sterile floret similar to upper glume; elliptic; 1 length of spikelet; membranous; 5-7-veined; ribbed; glabrous, or pubescent; acute. Palea of lower sterile floret 0.1-0.2 the length of lemma. Fertile lemma elliptic; dorsally compressed; 1-2 mm long; coriaceous; shiny; without keel; 5-veined. Lemma margins involute. Lemma apex obtuse. Palea involute; coriaceous (Clayton et al., 2012).
The following description is taken from The Flora of North America (Barkworth et al., 2007):
S. indica is cespitose. Culms 5-100 cm, decumbent, spreading, trailing, often rooting at the lower nodes; nodes glabrous. Sheaths and collars glabrous; ligules 0.1-0.7 mm long, membranous, truncate; blades 1-14.3 cm long, 1.5-5.5 mm wide, glabrous, not cordate at the base. Panicles 0.5-9(13) cm long, 4-7 mm wide, contracted; primary branches fused to the rachises for at least 3/4 of their length; lower branches 0.1-0.5 cm; pedicels 0.3-1.8 mm. Spikelets 2.1-3.3 mm, with or without papillose-based hairs on the upper glumes and lower lemmas, green to dark purple. Lower glumes 1.1-1.9 mm, glabrous, 3-5(7)-veined, margins hyaline; upper glumes 2-3.3 mm, slightly saccate, glabrous adaxially, 9-veined; lower florets sterile (rarely staminate); lower lemmas 1.9-3.1 mm, 7-9-veined, veins equidistant; lower paleas 0.5-1 mm long, 0.1-0.2 mm wide, 1/2 or less as long as the lower lemmas, narrow, membranous, white, not veined; upper lemmas 1.3-1.6 mm, subcoriaceous, glabrous, shiny, white, with 3-5 obscure veins, acute; anthers 3, 0.5-0.8 mm, dark reddish-brown to reddish-purple; styles purple. Caryopses 1-1.3 mm long, 0.5-0.7 mm wide, glabrous (Barkworth et al., 2007).
Distribution
S. indica is native to the southeast Asian paleotropics (Barkworth et al., 2007; Gennaro and Scataglini, 2012). PIER (2013) also reports it as native to Australia, East Asia and some Pacific islands. The report of the species being native to the Korean peninsula and the Himalayas is questionable, based on the physiology and biology of the species.
S. indica has been introduced to tropical regions of Africa, to India, New Zealand, several Pacific islands (including Hawaii), south-east USA, the Caribbean and parts of South and Central America.
In southeast Asia and the Pacific region, it is possible that it was introduced to the islands of the East Indies and Polynesia as well as the Philippines, Guam and Japan. However, most sources treat S. indica as native to islands close to the continental mainland and introduced to the other islands of Polynesia.
Sacciolepis is a pan-tropical genus with a distribution centered on Africa. S. indica is also found in Africa where it may be easily confused with other Sacciolepis species. Older authorities occasionally treated S. indica as native to Africa, but more recent examinations have found it to be introduced there.
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
S. indica is relatively new to North America and the Caribbean; it was first recorded in the USA in a pecan orchard in 1950, in Jamaica in 1978 and Guadeloupe in 1979 (Hitchcock, 1971; Proctor, 1982). Proctor (1982) believed that seeds of S. indica were accidentally introduced among the roots of the Venus flytrap Dionaea muscipula.
Risk of Introduction
The species is already established globally, and so the risk is less the introduction and more the lack of detailed species inventories.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
S. indica is spread by its seed, which are often dispersed by sticking to animal fur. Seed and rhizome fragments are also dispersed by water (PIER, 2013).
Anecdotal information suggests that the spread and establishment of S. indica globally is due to accidental introductions. Proctor (1982) believed that seeds of S. indica may have been accidentally introduced to North America and the Caribbean among the roots of the Venus flytrap Dionaea muscipula.
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Forage (pathway cause) | Yes | |||
| Hitchhiker (pathway cause) | Multiple inferences | Yes |
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
| Host | Family | Host status | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Zoysia matrella (Manila grass) | Poaceae | Unknown |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Sacciolepis spp. can be easily confused with Hymenachne spp., but S. indica has a saccate second glume which members of Hymenachne lack. These genera can also be distinguished because pith aerenchyma is abundant in the internodes of species of Hymenachne but absent or fragmentary in species of Sacciolepis (Pohl and Lersten, 1975).
S. indica is very similar to other Sacciolepis species such as S. spiciform (Flora Zambesiaca, 1989). Flora Zambesiaca conserves that S. indica ‘can usually be distinguished by spikelet length and habit, but absence of leaf papillae is the most reliable character though it requires use of a microscope.’ Spikelet length and smooth pedicels can be used to quickly distinguish S. indica from S. myosuroides (Simon and Alfonso, 2012).
Simon (1972) wrote that it is ‘delimited from the type genus Panicum by the strongly saccate nature of the base of the upper glume and to a lesser extent of the lower lemma, and by the inflorescence ... being a false spike (morphologically a much contracted panicle)’ (Simon, 1972). S. indica can also be distinguished from the rest of Paniceae by the presence of spiciform panicle with ribbed glumes and gibbous upper glumes (Teerawatananon et al., 2011).
African specimens of S. indica often have little auricles. These specimens have been described as S. auriculata in the past. However, according to Flora Zambesiaca (1989), S. indica intergrades completely from forms with auricles to the commoner form that lacks auricles (Scholz, 1980; Flora Zambesiaca, 1989).
Habitat
Adapted from PIER (2013):
S. indica is found in tropical and subtropical rainforests, tropical and subtropical sub-humid woodlands and coastal grasslands. It is also found at streamsides and marshy places and occurs in dense swards in swamps and stagnant water. S. indica is found at elevations up to1700 m above sea level (Flora Zambesiaca, 1989).
In Hawaii, it is described as ‘naturalized and common in open, wet areas such as grasslands, crests of ridges, openings in wet forest, and along trails’.
In Fiji it is moderately common on ‘open hillsides, sand and gravel banks in stream beds, in weedy thickets along roadsides and trails, and as a weed of cultivation and waste places’.
In New Caledonia, S. indica is found in wet areas, forest edges and in some degraded forests.
In Zambia, Tanzania and Thailand it has been recorded as a weed in rice paddies (De Gennaro, 2011; Missouri Botanical Garden, 2012b; Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2012; SANBI, 2012).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Principal habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Principal habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
2n = 18 (Zhengyi et al., 2006).
Reproductive Biology
S. indica will seed readily as an annual but it also can propagate via its aerial roots. This clonal method of propagation may have given rise to the perennial classification S. indica has been given in some sources.
Physiology and Phenology
S. indica has a wide phenotypic plasticity displayed in many ecotypes.
Associations
S. indica was found as an associated species of sedge Bulbostylis barbata (Jones and Wipff, 1993).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Tolerated | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Tolerated | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Tolerated |
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture > heavy
Soil drainage > impeded
Soil drainage > seasonally waterlogged
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Negative |
Impact: Economic
S. indica is a low value forage crop (Mallett and Orchard, 2002). It is a weed of rice in Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia (Moody, 1989).
Impact: Environmental
Impact on Habitats
S. indica may compete with other plants for resources, although no species-specific research has been conducted on this.
Impact on Biodiversity
S. indica may impact native rare and endangered species on island habitats, although no species-specific research has been conducted on this.
Threatened Species
| Threatened species | Where threatened | Mechanisms | References | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phyllostegia hispida (hispid phyllostegia) | Hawaii |
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Tolerant of shade
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Has high reproductive potential
Reproduces asexually
Has high genetic variability
Impact outcomes
Changed gene pool/ selective loss of genotypes
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission
Hybridization
Rapid growth
Likelihood of entry/control
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Uses
S. indica is a low value forage crop (Mallett and Orchard, 2002).
Uses List
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Forage
Detection and Inspection
As the only cosmopolitan species within the genus, S. indica is best described by length of its spikelet, the length if its upper glume, the length of the inferior lemma, the length of its anther upper flower, its hyaline ligules and its having an apex acute upper glume (Gennaro and Scataglini, 2012). Simon (1972) wrote that it is ‘characterized by a spikelet containing two florets of which the lower is male or barren, and the upper hermaphrodite. It is delimited from the type genus Panicum by the strongly saccate nature of the base of the upper glume and to a lesser extent of the lower lemma, and by the inflorescence ... being a false spike (morphologically a much contracted panicle)’ (Simon, 1972). S. indica can also be distinguished from the rest of Paniceae by the presence of spiciform panicle with ribbed glumes and gibbous upper glumes (Teerawatananon et al., 2011).
S. indica is very similar to other Sacciolepis species such as S. spiciform (Flora Zambesiaca, 1989). Flora Zambesiaca conserves that S. indica ‘can usually be distinguished by spikelet length and habit, but absence of leaf papillae is the most reliable character though it requires use of a microscope.’ Spikelet length and smooth pedicels can be used to quickly distinguish S. indica from S. myosuroides (Simon and Alfonso, 2012).
African specimens of S. indica often have little auricles. These specimens have been described as S. auriculata in the past. However, according to Flora Zambesiaca (1989), S. indica intergrades completely from forms with auricles to the commoner form that lacks auricles (Scholz, 1980; Flora Zambesiaca, 1989).
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
PIER (2013) reported that S. indica is 'probably sensitive to glyphosate'.
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
Research on the economic and biodiversity impacts of S. inidca are needed.
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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