Tragus berteronianus (carrot-seed grass)
Datasheet Type: Invasive species
Abstract
This datasheet on Tragus berteronianus covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Tragus berteronianus Schult.
- Preferred Common Name
- carrot-seed grass
- Other Scientific Names
- Lappago berteroniana (Schult.) Schult. ex Steud.
- Lappago occidentalis (Nees) Hook.f.
- Nazia occidentalis (Nees) Scribn.
- Nazia racemosa var. berteroniana (Schult.) Hack.
- Tragus alienus var. brevispinus Henrard
- Tragus ciliatus Lepr. ex Kunth
- Tragus occidentalis Nees
- Tragus racemosus var. berteronianus (Schult.) Hack.
- International Common Names
- EnglishAfrican bur grasssmall carrot-seed grassspike bur grassspiked burr grassspiked burrgrass
- Chineseshi zi cao
- Local Common Names
- Brazilcarrapicho de ovelha
- Cubarabo de gato
- Egyptharroay
- Puerto Ricohincadora
- South Africagewone wortelsaadgraskousklits
Pictures

Habit
Tragus berteronianus (carrot-seed grass); Habit, with seedheads. Sailors Hat, Kahoolawe, Hawaii, USA. December 2010.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Fruiting habit
Tragus berteronianus (carrot-seed grass); Fruiting habit. Honokanaia, Kahoolawe, Hawaii, USA. December 2010.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Spikelets
Tragus berteronianus (carrot-seed grass); Seedhead, showing spikelets. Kealaikahiki, Kahoolawe, Hawaii, USA. December 2013.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Flowers and spikelets
Tragus berteronianus (carrot-seed grass); Flowers and spikelets, adhering to the material of an insect net. Sailors Hat, Kahoolawe, Hawaii, USA. December 2010.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Seedhead
Tragus berteronianus (carrot-seed grass); Seedhead, showing spikelets. Kahului Heliport, Maui, Hawaii, USA. March 2009.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Habit
Tragus berteronianus (carrot-seed grass); Seeding habit in mud with cracks. Sailors Hat, Kahoolawe, Hawaii, USA. December 2010.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Fruiting habit
Tragus berteronianus (carrot-seed grass); Fruiting habit, with mature seed heads. Honokanaia, Kahoolawe, Hawaii, USA. March 2004.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0

Habit
Tragus berteronianus (carrot-seed grass); Habit, with seedheads. Honokanaia, Kahoolawe, Hawaii, USA. February 2008.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Summary of Invasiveness
Tragus berteronianus is an erect or ascending annual grass species reaching a height of up to 45 cm. It is native to tropical and temperate regions of Africa and Eurasia, and has naturalized in the Americas. It grows in disturbed areas, often on poor rocky or sandy soils. This species is naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands, North America, the Caribbean and several locations in South America. It is listed as invasive in Hawaii (USA) and the US Virgin Islands with no details on impact. An assessment carried out in 2021 using the Hawai’i Pacific Weed Risk Assessment screening process has rated it as high risk with a score of 15 which indicates that it is likely to be invasive in Hawaiʻi and on other Pacific Islands on the basis of several undesirable traits, such as prolific seeding, dispersal of seeds by water, wind, attachment to clothing or fur by seed hooks and as a contaminant.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Tragus is a genus in the Poaceae family comprising seven to eight species, mostly tropical and subtropical (Anton, 1981; World Flora Online, 2020). The genus is characterized by the disarticulating inflorescence, rudimentary first glume and an awnless second glume with distinctive prickles or spines on its nerves (Anton, 1981). Members of this genus frequently occur as weeds throughout their distribution range.
Tragus berteronianus, native to the Old World, is now a pantropical weed found in open, dry disturbed habitats. The genus name comes from the Greek word ‘tragos’ meaning goat; the specific epithet honours Carlo Giuseppe Bertero, an Italian physician who described it for the first time in 1824.
Plant Type
Annual
Grass / sedge
Description
The following description is from Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016), with further descriptions available from Sulekic and Zapater (2001) and Jung and Cheng (2016):
Erect or ascending annual grass, mat-forming. Culms tufted, usually decumbent at base and rooting at lower nodes, 15-30 cm tall. Leaf sheaths shorter than or subequal to internodes; leaf blades broadly linear, tough, flat, glaucous, 3-7 cm, 3-4 mm wide, margins thick, pectinate-spinose, apex acute. Inflorescence 4-11 × ca. 0.5 cm; racemes of two unequal spikelets separated by a 0.4-0.6 mm rachis internode; rachis not extended beyond upper spikelet; basal peduncle 0.2-0.4 mm. Lower spikelet fertile, elliptic, 2-3 mm; lower glume suppressed; upper glume 5-ribbed, ribs bearing hooked, swollen-based spines, apex acute; lemma ovate-lanceolate, 1.8-2.1 mm, puberulous, apex sharply acute. Upper spikelet sterile, narrowly elliptic, 1.5-2.2 mm, often reduced to the upper glume.
Distribution
Much of the published literature indicates that T. berteronianus is native to tropical and temperate areas of Africa and Asia (Anton, 1981; Acevedo-Rodríguez, 1996; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016; Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2016; PROTA, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016; POWO, 2020). Howard (1979) suggests there is some doubt as to whether this species is native to the New World. Anton (1981) maintains that all the species of Tragus known in the Americas have been introduced.
This species is considered an introduced or exotic species in the Caribbean, Lesser Antilles (Anguilla, Antigua, Grenada, Barbados, Dominica, Monserrat, Saba, St. Barthelemy, Saint Eustatius, Saint Kitts, Saint Martin, Saint Vincent), Greater Antilles (Jamaica), Cuba, Hispaniola (Gonave, Haiti), Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands (Guana Islands, St. Croix, St. John, St. Thomas, Tortola), Bahamas, North America, Mexico, Central America and South America (Acevedo-Rodríguez and Strong, 2012).
Tragus berteronianus is reported as naturalized in Taiwan, Mexico, Hawaii, Bahamas, Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands, Venezuela, Bolivia, Colombia and Peru (Jung and Cheng, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2022).
This species is reported as established in parts of the USA (Arizona, New Mexico and Texas). It was collected in Maine, Massachusetts, New York and Virginia in the 19th century and Virginia in 1959 (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2016).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
In Boston (Massachusetts, USA), T. berteronianus is believed to have been introduced via ballast and in Maine in wool waste (Hitchcock, 1935). There is little information on when and how this species was introduced outside its native range.
Risk of Introduction
Little is known about the biology of T. berteronianus and its environmental requirements which makes it difficult to fully assess the risk of introduction. It is unlikely to be introduced to any country as an ornamental or for any economic or social benefits. There is a risk of accidental introduction as a contaminant of wool waste and ballast as has been reported for Maine and Massachusetts (USA) (Hitchcock, 1935).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal
Seeds of T. berteronianus are dispersed by wind and water (Plant Pono, 2021).
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Seeds of T. berteronianus can be dispersed by attachment to clothing and fur by means of hooked prickles arising from the upper glume which help in the attachment (Wagner et al., 1999). Of 369 hares examined in Kenya, 160 had a total of 810 disseminules of 17 plant species in their fur, T. berteronianus being one of the six commonest species (Agnew and Flux, 1970).
Accidental Introduction
Seeds can be dispersed as a contaminant of agricultural products (wool waste) and shipping (ballast) (Haines, 2011).
Pathway Causes
Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Disturbance (pathway cause) | Found growing in disturbed areas | Yes | Hyde et al. (2016), Hyde et al. (2017) | |
Forage (pathway cause) | Used as forage in some locations | Yes | Nunes et al. (2015), Shemdoe (2017) | |
Harvesting fur, wool or hair (pathway cause) | Accidentally introduced as a contaminant of wool products | Yes | Yes | |
Hitchhiker (pathway cause) | Accidentally introduced as a contaminant of wool products | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clothing, footwear and possessions (pathway vector) | Seeds have hooked spines that could attach easily to clothes and footwear | Yes | Yes | |
Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Observed growing at dump sites near wool factories and ballast dump sites | Yes | Yes | |
Ship ballast water and sediment (pathway vector) | Found growing at ballast dump sites | Yes | Yes | |
Water (pathway vector) | Dispersed by water | Yes | Yes | |
Wind (pathway vector) | Dispersed by wind | Yes | Yes |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Tragus berteronianus is sometimes confused with Tragus racemosus (Native Plant Trust, 2016). T. racemosus has an upper glume which is 7-veined, 3.8-6.6 mm long, with six or seven longitudinal rows of spine-like projections and panicle branches 2.1-4.8 mm long; T. berteronianus has an upper glume which is 5-veined, 1.8-4.3 mm long, with five longitudinal rows of spine-like projections and panicle branches 0.7-2.7 mm long.
Habitat
Tragus berteronianus is found in: poor sandy or stony soils in Pakistan (Flora of Pakistan, 2016); lowland dry forests in the Bolivian Andes (Missouri Botanical Garden, 2016); along roadsides and in disturbed or overgrazed areas in Mozambique (Hyde et al., 2016); deserts, disturbed areas and low mountains in Peru (Peru Checklist, 2016); along roadsides and arid, disturbed sites in Hawaii (Wagner et al., 1999); along roadsides, disturbed areas and bare or overgrazed soil in Zimbabwe (Hyde et al., 2017); degraded areas from 0 to 2200 m above sea level in Colombia (García-Ulloa et al., 2005); and rocky outcrops in South Africa (Malan et al., 1998).
This species is recorded as naturalized in sandy soil under kiawe (Prosopis pallida) trees on Lāna‘i (Hawaii, USA) (Oppenheimer, 2013).
In the USA, in Maine and Massachusetts, T. berteronianus is considered an exotic species and an occasional visitor via waste areas of 19th century wool-carding factories and ship ballast dumps. It is found occasionally in man-made and disturbed areas (Native Plant Trust, 2016).
In Argentina, T. berteronianus is a very frequent species in sandy and stony soils. In the lower areas, up to an altitude of 1800 m, it lives in conjunction with several species of grasses typical of the Chaco region such as Digitaria californica, Chloris virgata, Acroceras zizanioides, Trichloris pluriflora and Dactyloctenium aegyptium. At higher altitudes, it coexists with Aristida adscensionis, Eragrostis nigricans, Cottea pappophoroides and Erioneuron avenaceum (Sulekic and Zapater, 2001).
Habitat List
Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
---|---|---|---|---|
Terrestrial | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Terrestrial | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Terrestrial | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural | |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Arid regions | Present, no further details | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for T. berteronianus is 2n = 20 (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2016).
Reproductive Biology
Tragus berteronianus reproduces by seed. Production of up to 47,000 seeds/m2 has been reported in annual stands of this species in Botswana (Veenendaal et al., 1996).
Physiology and Phenology
Flowering and fruiting in T. berteronianus occur from summer to autumn in China (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). In Zimbabwe and Mozambique, flowering occurs from November to May (Hyde et al., 2016; 2017).
Longevity
Tragus berteronianus is an annual grass species (Wagner et al., 1999).
Associations
In Argentina, at elevations up to 1800 m, T. berteronianus can be found with several species of grasses typical of the Chaco region such as Digitaria californica, Chloris virgata, Acroceras zizanioides, Trichloris pluriflora and Dactyloctenium aegyptium. At higher altitudes, it coexists with Aristida adscensionis, Eragrostis nigricans, Cottea pappophoroides and Erioneuron avenaceum (Sulekic and Zapater, 2001).
Environmental Requirements
In Argentina, T. berteronianus has been collected at altitudes of 250-2700 (-2950) m (Sulekic and Zapater, 2001), and from 0 to 2200 m above sea level in Colombia (García-Ulloa et al., 2005).
Climate
Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | Preferred |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
---|---|---|---|
38 | 38 |
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > Light
Special soil tolerances > Infertile
Notes on Natural Enemies
In South Africa, the yellow sugarcane aphid (Sipha flava) has been collected from T. berteronianus (Way et al., 2014).
Natural enemies
Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sipha flava (yellow sugarcane aphid) | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific |
Impact Summary
Category | Impact |
---|---|
Livestock production | Positive |
Impact: Economic
Although T. berteronianus is listed as invasive in Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands there are no details on impacts (PIER, 2016; Angeli and Thomas, 2019). An assessment carried out in 2021 using the Hawai’i Pacific Weed Risk Assessment screening process has rated it as high risk with a score of 15 which indicates that it is likely to be invasive in Hawaiʻi and on other Pacific Islands (Plant Pono, 2021).
In the Nama Karoo region of South Africa, out of 43 problem plant species recorded, T. berteronianus is listed as one of two dominant road-verge problem plant species (DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, 2007). Although there is no evidence for verges acting as corridors for the dispersal of these species, the verges certainly provide suitable habitats for problem plants.
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Is a habitat generalist
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Has high reproductive potential
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Uses
According to Oudtshoorn (1992), T. berteronianus is a pioneer grass species found in overgrazed areas. Although it hardly has any grazing value due to its low leaf production it plays an important role in the control of soil erosion in South Africa.
In Tanzania, T. berteronianus is used by local farmers as animal feed and as an indicator of soil quality (Shemdoe, 2017). In southeast Brazil, this species is mentioned as one of the forage plants used by two rural communities in the state of Paraíba (Nunes et al., 2015).
Uses List
Environmental > Erosion control or dune stabilization
Environmental > Host of pest
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Forage
Links to Websites
Name | URL | Comment |
---|---|---|
Flora of China, 2016 | http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2 | |
Flora of Pakistan, 2016 | http://www.tropicos.org/Project/Pakistan | |
Flora of Zimbabwe, 2016 | www.zimbabweflora.co.zw | |
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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