Leptochloa fusca (sprangletop)
Datasheet Type: Invasive species
Abstract
This datasheet on Leptochloa fusca covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth
- Preferred Common Name
- sprangletop
- Other Scientific Names
- Atropis carinata Griseb.
- Brizopyrum uninervium (J.Presl) E.Fourn.
- Bromus polystachios Forssk.
- Centotheca malabarica (L.) Merr.
- Cynodon fascicularis (Lam.) Raspail
- Diachroa procumbens (Muhl.) Nutt.
- Digitaria malabarica (L.) Roem. & Schult.
- Diplachne acuminata Nash
- Diplachne amboensis Roiv.
- Diplachne capensis (Nees) Nees
- Diplachne carinata (Griseb.) Hack. ex Kurtz
- Diplachne fascicularis (Lam.) P.Beauv.
- Diplachne fusca (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult.
- Diplachne imbricata (Thurb.) Scribn.
- Diplachne indica (Retz.) Spreng.
- Diplachne livida Nees
- Diplachne malabarica (L.) Merr.
- Diplachne maritima E.P.Bicknell
- Diplachne muelleri Benth.
- Diplachne pallida Hack.
- Diplachne parviflora (R.Br.) Benth.
- Diplachne polystachya (Forssk.) Backer
- Diplachne procumbens Arechav.
- Diplachne reptatrix (L.) Druce
- Diplachne tarapacana Phil.
- Diplachne tracyi Vasey
- Diplachne uninervia (J.Presl) Parodi
- Diplachne verticillata Nees & Meyen
- Diplachne virens (Nees) Parodi
- Diplachne wahlbergii Roiv.
- Eragrostis procera (Roxb.) Steud.
- Eragrostis uninervia (J.Presl) Steud.
- Festuca brownii F.Muell.
- Festuca clandestina Muhl.
- Festuca digitata Brouss. ex Hornem.
- Festuca fascicularis Lam.
- Festuca fusca L.
- Festuca indica Retz.
- Festuca multiflora Walter
- Festuca polystachya Michx.
- Festuca reptatrix L.
- Festuca texana Steud.
- Festuca thouinii Steud.
- Hemigymnia malabarica (L.) Henrard
- Leptochloa acuminata (Nash) Mohlenbr.
- Leptochloa contracta (Retz.) Blatt. & McCann
- Leptochloa fascicularis (Lam.) A.Gray
- Leptochloa ginae Maire
- Leptochloa imbricata Thurb.
- Leptochloa malabarica (L.) Veldkamp
- Leptochloa muelleri (Benth.) Stace
- Leptochloa neuroglossa Peter
- Leptochloa polystachya (Michx.) Kunth
- Leptochloa tracyi (Vasey) Beal
- Leptochloa uninervia (J.Presl) Hitchc. & Chase
- Leptochloa virletii E.Fourn.
- Megastachya uninervia J.Presl
- Ottochloa malabarica (L.) Dandy
- Panicum malabaricum (L.) Merr.
- Poa contracta Retz.
- Poa fusca (L.) Desf.
- Poa malabarica L.
- Poa procera Roxb.
- Poa uninervia (J.Presl) Kunth
- Puccinellia carinata (Griseb.) Ponert
- Rabdochloa imbricata (Thurb.) Kuntze
- Syntherisma malabarica (L.) Sw. ex Roem. & Schult.
- Tridens capensis Nees
- Tridens duartei Catasús
- Tridens veralensis Catasús
- Tridens virens Nees
- Triodia ambigua R.Br.
- Triodia capensis (Nees) T.Durand & Schinz
- Triodia formosana Honda
- Triodia livida (Nees) T.Durand & Schinz
- Triodia parviflora R.Br.
- Uralepis alba Steud.
- Uralepis anderssonii Aresch.
- Uralepis capensis (Nees) Kunth
- Uralepis composita Buckley
- Uralepis drummondii Steud.
- Uralepis fusca (L.) Steud.
- Uralepis livida (Nees) Steud.
- Uralepis verticillata (Nees & Meyen) Steud.
- Uralepis virens (Nees) Kunth
- International Common Names
- Englishbearded sprangletopbeetle grassbrown beetle grasslittoral sprangletopMalabar sprangletopMexican sprangletopsprangletopswamp grass
- Spanishpaja gris
- Chineseshuang fu cao
- Local Common Names
- Australiadiplanchne
- Indiachamapullu
Pictures
Invasive habit
Leptochloa fusca (sprangletop); invasive habit, showing seedheads. Kealia Pond NWR, Maui, Hawaii, USAS. June 2013.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Invasive habit
Leptochloa fusca (sprangletop); invasive habit. Kealia Pond NWR, Maui, Hawaii, USA. June 2013.
©Forest & Kim Starr - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Leptochloa fusca (sprangletop); habit. Moree Plains, New South Wales, Australia. January 2009.
©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0
Habit
Leptochloa fusca (sprangletop); leafy habit. Warren, New South Wales, Australia. November 2008.
©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0
Flowerheads
Leptochloa fusca (sprangletop); flowerheads. These are a primary axis of racemes (10-50cm long), with many erect branches that spread at maturity. Warren, New South Wales, Australia. January 2009.
©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0
Spikelets
Leptochloa fusca (sprangletop); spikelets. Warren, New South Wales, Australia. January 2009.
©Harry Rose (Macleay Grass Man)/via flickr - CC BY 2.0
Summary of Invasiveness
Leptochloa fusca is a perennial weed with a global distribution. It is an aggressive species showing a competitive advantage in many situations due to its tolerance of saline and alkaline soils and its likely ability to fix nitrogen. It is commonly a serious weed of rice in many countries. It is recorded as invasive in Cuba, Hawaii and in the Chagos Archipelago (as L. fusca subsp. uninervia) and has been the subject of an ‘eradication action’ in Europe.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Leptochloa fusca is the latest of a very large number of names applied to this species. Originally known as Festuca fusca by Linnaeus, it has been included in Poa, Digitaria and numerous other genera, including Diplachne Peterson et al. (2012). Snow et al. (2018) make a strong case for use of the name Diplachne fusca and this is now used by USDA-ARS (2018), while most other authorities including The Plant List (2013) and USDA-NRCS (2018) continue to use Leptochloa fusca.
The taxonomy of L. fusca is still uncertain and many botanical sources including The Plant List (2013), USDA-ARS (2018), WCSP (2018) and Missouri Botanical Garden (2018), recognize three subspecies: fascicularis, muelleri and uninervia, in addition to subsp. fusca, with differing distributions as described by Peterson et al. (2012) and Snow et al. (2018). These are all, at times, referred to as full species. The differing distributions are indicated to some degree in the distribution table, but for most purposes, the group is treated as a single species throughout this datasheet.
Plant Type
Annual
Biennial
Grass / sedge
Herbaceous
Perennial
Seed propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Description
Perennial, loosely tufted to rhizomatous. Culms erect or geniculate and rooting from lower nodes, up to 100 cm or more tall. Leaf sheaths glabrous; leaf blades tough, usually involute, 5-30(-50) × 0.15-0.3(-0.6) cm, adaxial surface scabrid, abaxial surface subglabrous; ligule 3-12 mm, acute. Inflorescence 15-25 cm, scabrid; racemes 3-28, indistinctly unilateral, 4-20 cm, straight, ascending or spreading, spikelets usually distant. Spikelets glaucous-green, subterete, 6-14 mm, florets 5-12; glumes keeled; lower glume lanceolate, 2-3 mm, acute; upper glume narrowly oblong, 3-4 mm, acute or mucronate; lemmas narrowly oblong, dorsally sub-rounded, lowest 4-5 mm, lower lateral veins pilose, entire or 2-dentate, midvein often produced into a short 0.3-1.6 mm awn; palea ciliolate along upper keels. Callus laterally pilose. Anthers 0.5-0.75(-2.5) mm. Caryopsis elliptic-oblong, 1.5-2.5 mm, dorso-ventrally flattened (AusGrass2, 2015; Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).
The subspecies are separated as follows (Snow et al., 2018):
L. fusca subsp. muelleri: lemmas flat, relatively broad, to 2.0 mm wide; panicles narrow, mostly less than 5 cm wide; panicle branches generally steeply erect, often flexuous near tips; hairs on lateral nerves of lemma sericeous to velutinous, often densely so and typically becoming divaricate with age; lemma apices mostly broadly acute, awnless or sometimes mucronate; Australian interior.
L. fusca subsp. uninervia: lemma apices obtuse to truncate, usually notched and often mucronate; lemmas often dark green or lead colored; spikelets relatively short, 5–10 mm, anthers usually less than 0.7 mm; rachilla rarely visible during anthesis; mostly New World tropics.
L. fusca subsp. fusca: lemma apices various, obtuse to acute or acuminate, notched or not; lemmas of various colors; spikelets 6–14 mm; anthers usually 0.5–2.7 mm; mostly Old World, southern South America, introduced into North America.
L. fusca subsp. fascicularis: lemmas slightly keeled, relatively narrow, mostly less than 1.5 mm wide; panicles somewhat broad, particularly at base, to 22 cm wide; panicle branches somewhat erect to reflexed, the branches not flexuous near tips; hairs on lateral nerves of sericeous, rarely densely so, typically remaining more or less appressed; lemma apices acute to acuminate, awnless or with awns to 3.5 mm long; mostly New World.
Distribution
The distribution indicated in the distribution table is mostly for Leptochloa fusca in the broad sense. Each of the main subspecies, however, has a more restricted distribution which is indicated where the information is readily available (AusGrass2, 2015; WCSP, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018).
A brief summary of native ranges for subspecies is as follows: L. fusca subsp. fusca is a polymorphic palaeotropical taxon native to Africa, Asia and Australasia; L. fusca subsp. muelleri is apparently restricted to Australia, known from much of the interior portions of eastern Australia, particularly the Northern Territory; L. fusca subsp. uninervia is native to and widespread in the Americas, from southern USA southwards; and L. fusca subsp. fascicularis is native almost throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the New World (Peterson et al., 2012; USDA-ARS, 2018).
L. fusca has been introduced to Canada, Hawaii, the Chagos archipelago, Maldives, Midway Atoll, Australia and parts of Europe and Asia. In Spain, L. fusca subsp. uninervia and L. fusca subsp. fascicularis were found to be widely distributed in Valencia, increasing from a frequency of 5.3% in 2008 to 20.1% in 2010. In the West Indies, L. fusca subsp. uninervia is listed as introduced and invasive in Cuba while L. fusca subsp. fusca is listed as introduced and naturalized in St Lucia (Oviedo and Gonzalez-Oliva, 2015; Graveson, 2016).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Leptochloa fusca subsp. uninervia and subsp. fascicularis are apparently recent introductions to Spain, where they were first recorded in 1990 (GBIF, 2014). In Australia, L. fusca subsp. uninervis was first recognized in 1999 (Snow and Simon, 1999). In Italy, L. fusca subsp. fascicularis was first reported in 2000 and was apparently introduced from Spain (Romani and Tabacchi, 2000). In the Canary islands, L. fusca subsp. uninervia was first recorded in a plant nursery in Gran Canaria in 2011 and it is spreading rapidly (Verloove, 2013). In St. Lucia, L. fusca subsp. fusca was apparently introduced as a seed contaminant on heavy equipment imported to be used at Praslin (Graveson, 2016).
Introductions
| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Australia | 1999 | No | No | Ssp. uninervia | ||||
| Iran | 2000 | No | No | |||||
| Italy | Spain | 2000 | Yes | No | ||||
| Spain | 1990 | Yes | No | |||||
Risk of Introduction
The risk of new introduction of L. fusca is very high mainly due to its widespread distribution and its behaviour as an agricultural and environmental weed. As a major weed of rice with a sizeable seed, L. fusca may be an occasional contaminant of unmilled rice and hence spread with imports of rice.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Leptochloa fusca spreads predominantly by seed. Seeds are easily dispersed by water as the plants often grow in ditches and drains, on the edges of irrigation channels and along the margins of permanent rivers (Osca, 2013; Queensland Government, 2018). Seeds can be dispersed as contaminant in crop and pasture seeds, soil and machinery (Taberner et al. 2011).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Weed of agricultural lands | Yes | Yes | Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018) |
| Disturbance (pathway cause) | Often naturalized in open grounds and disturbed places | Yes | Yes | |
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Seeds escape from cultivation | Yes | ||
| Forage (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Interconnected waterways (pathway cause) | Seeds dispersed by water | Yes | ||
| Internet sales (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Seed trade (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Floating vegetation and debris (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
| Land vehicles (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
| Machinery and equipment (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
| Mulch, straw, baskets and sod (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
| Water (pathway vector) | Yes |
Hosts/Species Affected
Leptochloa fusca is a major weed of rice (Oryza sativa) in a number of countries including USA, Cuba, Spain, India and China (Tian et al., 2017; USDA-ARS, 2018). It is also problematic in lucerne/alfalfa (Medicago sativa), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), turf (Poaceae), onion (Allium cepa) and peppers (Capsicum annuum) (Martínez et al., 2003).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
| Host | Family | Host status | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Allium cepa (onion) | Liliaceae | Main | |
| Capsicum (peppers) | Solanaceae | Main | |
| Lycopersicon esculentum | Solanaceae | Other | |
| Medicago sativa (lucerne) | Fabaceae | Wild host | |
| Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Main |
Growth Stages
Flowering stage
Seedling stage
Vegetative growing stage
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
In Flora of China Editorial Committee (2018), Leptochloa chinensis and Leptochloa panicea are distinguished from Leptochloa fusca by being an annual plant, with smaller, compressed spikelets, up to 4 mm long and with awnless lemmas.
Habitat
Leptochloa fusca is a plant of shallow water, marshes and sometimes brackish ground (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018). It is a salt-tolerant species and is known to excrete salt through glands on the leaves. It can also be found growing in and beside shallow standing water and in boggy, marshy, alluvial and black peaty soils and in wet sand, 0–1280 m above sea level. It is also described as a major weed of irrigation channels. In Spain, L. fusca subsp. uninervia is normally found around the edge of fields, while L. fusca subsp. fascicularis is found in the interior of flooded rice fields (Osca, 2013).
L. fusca has a relatively low tolerance to saline conditions at the seedling stage but tolerance increases during subsequent growth (Mahmood et al., 1995) and non-seedlings are tolerant of salinity, sodicity and alkalinity. Ola et al. (2012) observed significantly reduced growth at 100 mM NaCl but many other functions were normal and the plant was not severely damaged by 300 mM NaCl. In Egypt, fresh and dry weights increased with concentration of seawater between 12.5 and 25.0% (Ashour et al., 1997). Tolerance to NaCl appears to be associated with leaf extrusion and root efflux of both Na+ and Cl-.
Ashok et al. (1996) reported that L. fusca showed remarkable tolerance to prolonged water stagnation of 30 days, due to enhanced root aerenchyma development and root growth, which enabled physiological processes and nutrient uptake to continue.
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brackish | Inland saline areas | Principal habitat | ||
| Terrestrial | ||||
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Principal habitat | |
| Littoral | Coastal areas | Principal habitat | ||
| Littoral | Mud flats | Secondary/tolerated habitat | ||
| Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Principal habitat |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for Leptochloa fusca is 2n=20. It is described as a polymorphic species highly variable in habit, height and robustness (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).
Reproductive Biology
Fresh seeds of L. fusca are dormant and it has been suggested that as a semi-aquatic species, it requires flooding for both dormancy loss and germination (Baskin et al.; 1999). Osca et al. (2011) found that seeds subjected to saturated or flooded soils had faster germination and development, resulting in heavier and bigger plants; however, Leptochloa fusca subsp. fascicularis and Leptochloa fusca subsp. uninervia do not germinate and emerge if the water level is maintained continuously above 10 cm (Osca et al., 2011), or when exposed to flooding (Mahmood, 1997). Similar germination rates have been reported for experiments performed in light and dark conditions. Optimum germination temperatures are in the range 25-35°C (Mahmood, 1997). Salinity at 0.2% increased germination slightly, although higher salinity levels decreased germination. Wet conditions and low temperatures were effective for inducing germination of seeds which had been stored under dry, room temperatures for four months.
Physiology and Phenology
L. fusca is a C4 plant (Yusuf and Malik, 1984). In Spain, L. fusca subsp. fascicularis matures by June, thus allowing seeds to drop long before rice harvest (Osca, 2013). In China, L. fusca has been reported flowering and fruiting from June to September (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018). In Australia, flowers often occur after rains (AusGrass2, 2015). In Nicaragua, flowers and fruits have been observed in June (Flora of Nicaragua, 2018). In India, L. fusca has been reported flowering and fruiting from September to December (India Biodiversity Portal, 2018).
Longevity
L. fusca is a perennial plant with a life span of two or more years (Ecocrop, 2014). The subspecies fascicularis and uninervia are described as an annual or biennial species (USDA-NRCS, 2018).
Nutrition
In India, L. fusca subsp. fusca responded significantly to nitrogen (Rao et al., 2001) and to phosphorus (Abdullah et al., 2000). This species is able to grow well on infertile soils mostly due to its association with nitrogen fixing bacteria.
Associations
In South Africa, Leptochloa species often grow with Eragrostis bicolor (Janecke et al., 2003) and Acacia xanthophloea (Götze et al., 2003). L. fusca also grows associated with nitrogen-fixing Azoarcus bacteria (Reinhold-Hurek et al., 1993b; Reinhold-Hurek and Hurek, 1998a; James, 2000). Field and greenhouse studies have shown that L. fusca may fix up to 26% of its nitrogen content (Malik et al., 1987).
Environmental Requirements
L. fusca is a plant of tropical, sub-tropical and warm temperate climates that thrives in moist and sunny conditions. It grows best in areas with mean annual temperature ranging from 15°C to 30°C (but can tolerate 9°C – 40°C) and mean annual rainfall ranging from 250 mm to 1000 mm (100 mm – 2900 mm). It is adapted to grow in a wide range of soil types including sandy, loamy, clay and infertile soils with pH in the range 5 – 8 (tolerating 3.1 – 9.9). The plant is tolerant to drought and waterlogged conditions (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Tolerated | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Tolerated | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Tolerated | |
| Cs - Warm temperate climate with dry summer | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry summers | Tolerated | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Tolerated | |
| B - Dry (arid and semi-arid) | < 860mm precipitation annually | Tolerated | |
| BSk - Steppe climate | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation, mid altitude, average temp. < 18°C | Tolerated | |
| BW - Desert climate | < 430mm annual precipitation | Tolerated | |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 55 | 45 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Mean annual temperature | 15 | 30 |
| Mean maximum temperature of hottest month | 9 | |
| Mean minimum temperature of coldest month | 40 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall | ||
| Mean annual rainfall | 100 | 2900 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Winter
Bimodal
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > light
Soil texture > medium
Soil texture > heavy
Soil texture
Soil reaction > neutral
Soil reaction > alkaline
Soil reaction > very alkaline
Special soil tolerances > shallow
Special soil tolerances > infertile
Soil reaction > very acid
Soil drainage > free
Soil drainage > seasonally waterlogged
Soil reaction > acid
Soil reaction
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Positive |
Impact: Economic
Leptochloa fusca is an important weed of rice fields (Osca, 2013). In India, this species was the most dominant weed species, occurring in approximately 85% of the sites surveyed (Vidya et al., 2004). It is also listed as a major weed of rice in Cuba (Colon and Antigua, 1989), Australia (McIntyre et al., 1989), South Korea (Kang and Shim, 2002), Senegal (Haefele et al., 2000), Spain (Osca, 2013) and USA (Carey et al., 1994). It is also one of the most common weeds in onion and tomato-green pepper plantations in Venezuela (Martínez et al., 2003).
Impact: Environmental
Leptochloa fusca is an environmental weed that often can be found invading brackish water, salt marshes, irrigation ditches, riverbanks and along disturbed areas along roadsides and pastures (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2018; PIER, 2018; USDA-NRCS, 2018). In Australia, Leptochloa fusca subsp. uninervia is regarded as an environmental weed threatening brackish, saline and freshwater wetlands (Queensland Government, 2018). Once established in these habitats it forms dense stands that outcompete native grasses, sedges and other wetland plants, replacing some species and affecting populations of waterbirds and other wildlife (Queensland Government, 2018). In Hawaii, it is also listed as an invasive species abundant around the margins of brackish water ponds, wet, disturbed places such as along irrigation ditches and in shallow, standing water (Wagner et al., 1999; PIER, 2018).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Long lived
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Reproduces asexually
Impact outcomes
Modification of fire regime
Modification of hydrology
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced amenity values
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Rapid growth
Rooting
Likelihood of entry/control
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Leptochloa fusca is often planted for forage, green fodder and dry matter yields (Verma and Raghuwanshi, 2004). In Pakistan, it is cultivated on saline alkaline soil as a source of biomass. It has been also used for improvement of degraded and salt-affected soils (Akhter et al., 2004; Ahmad, 2010). Tawfik et al. (2013) suggested the potential of L. fusca as a biofuel in Egypt.
Uses List
Environmental > Agroforestry
Environmental > Erosion control or dune stabilization
Environmental > Land reclamation
Environmental > Soil improvement
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Fodder/animal feed
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Forage
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures
Gealy et al. (2013) recorded that the allelopathic rice cultivars PI 312777 and Taichung Native 1 (TN 1) provide significant suppression of Leptochloa fusca subsp. fascicularis.
Physical/Mechanical Control
In Colombia, land levelling is recommended for control of L. fusca subsp. fascicularis (Antigua, 1993).
Movement Control
Machinery should be washed before moving between sites to reduce the risk of spreading Leptochloa fusca.
Chemical Control
Osca (2013) noted that L. fusca is susceptible to molinate and cyhalofop-butyl, and partially susceptible to propanil.
Other herbicides reported effective in rice, mainly against L. fusca subsp. fascicularis, include thiobencarb and fenoxaprop + bentazone (Smith, 1988), granular chlomazone (Schulteis and Heier, 2003), dithiopyr, metolachlor, metolachlor + atrazine, pendimethalin and oxadiazon (McCarty et al., 1995). In addition, sequential applications of quinclorac and fenoxaprop, or propanil and sethoxydim (Stauber et al., 1991). In Cuba, pre-emergence thiobencarb or oxadiazon, and post-emergence propanil + thiobencarb may be used (Antigua, 1993). Isoxaben and atrazine treatments have been found to provide poor or inconsistent control (McCarty et al., 1995).
Glufosinate is effective in glufosinate-resistant (‘Liberty’) rice (Wheeler et al., 1998).
Grichar (2011) observes nicosulfuron and fenoxaprop providing effective control of L. fusca subsp. fascicularis in turf (Poaceae). In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) fields in Peru, metribuzin and and pendimethaline were effective (Cerna Bazan and Rojas Vargas, 1979); and in lucerne/alfalfa (Medicago sativa), prodiamine (Fenderson et al., 1987).
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
More research is needed on the to clarify the possibility of different germination behaviours and ecological requirements of the various subspecies.
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
References
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