Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon)
Datasheet Types: Crop, Tree, Invasive species, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Cinnamomum verum covers Identity, Overview, Associated Diseases, Pests or Pathogens, Distribution, Dispersal, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Management, Genetics and Breeding, Food Quality, Food Safety, Economics, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Cinnamomum verum J.S. Presl
- Preferred Common Name
- cinnamon
- Other Scientific Names
- Camphora mauritiana Lukman.
- Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (1826)
- Laurus cinnamomum L. (1753)
- International Common Names
- EnglishCeylon cinnamoncinnamon bark treetrue cinnamon
- Spanishcanelacanelerocanelero de Ceilánpalo de la canela
- Frencharbre à cannellecanneliercannelier véritablecennellier de Ceylon
- Arabicdâr sînîsalîkhah
- Chinesecū mài guìxi lan rou gui
- Portuguesecaneleirocanelleira-da-India
- Local Common Names
- Brazilcinamomo
- Cambodiache'k tum phka loëng
- Colombiacanela, canelo
- Fijikaloni
- Finlandaitokaneli
- GermanyCeylonzimtCeylonzimtbaumechter CeylonzimtKaneelbaum
- Indiacannalavangapattaidalchinielavagnumkaru vakaruwatamalapatratwakvayana
- Indonesiakayu manis
- Italyalbero della cannellacanella di Ceylon
- Malaysiakayu manis
- Myanmarkarawe
- Nepaldalchini
- Netherlandskaneelboom
- Palauochod ra ngebard
- Papua New Guineaskin diwai
- Peninsular Malaysiakulit manis
- Philippinescinnamonkane-la
- Samoatigamonitinamoni
- Sri Lankakurundu
- Swedenäkta kanelkaneltraed
- Tanzaniambdalisini
- Ugandabudalasini
- Vietnamqu[ees] h[oof]i, qu[ees] r[af]nh, qu[ees] Srilanca
- Trade name
- cinnamon
- EPPO Code
- CINZE (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)
Pictures
Cinnamon in various forms
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon); Sticks (ceylon cinnamon from Sri Lanka), powder and flowers.
©Simon A. Eugster/via Wikimedia Commons- CC BY-SA 3.0
Habit
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon); Habit showing foliage. May 2012.
©Shijan Kaakkara/via Wikimedia Commons- CC BY-SA 3.0
Leaves
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon); Leaves. Pithoragarh, Himalayas, India. May 2008.
©L. Shyamal/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 3.0
Trunk
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon); trunk, showing bark and foliage. Zanzibar. September 2012.
©Jeff Miccolis-2012/via Flickr - CC BY 2.0
Harvested bark
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon); Harvested bark at a packing shed in Sri Lanka. Each bundle has a wholesale value of US$1000 (2009) and a retail value of perhaps 10x that.
©N.M. Pasiecznik
Harvested bark
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon); Harvested bark at a packing shed in Sri Lanka. Each bundle has a wholesale value of US$1000 (2009) and a retail value of perhaps 10x that.
©N.M. Pasiecznik
Productive plantation
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon); Showing foliage and the managed coppice typical of productive plantations. Sri Lanka.
©N.M. Pasiecznik
Foliage
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon); Showing foliage and the managed coppice typical of productive plantations. Sri Lanka.
©N.M. Pasiecznik
Detail of a stump
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon); Stump in a productive plantation in Sri Lanka. Note the coppicing ability, also the red colour of juvenile leaves.
©N.M. Pasiecznik
Line drawing of plant parts
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon); Plant parts of Ceylon or true cinnamon. (A) flowering branch; (B) flower; (C) schematic longitudinal section through flower; (D) stamen of first and second whorl; (E) stamen of third whorl with glands; (F) staminode of fourth whorl; (G) fruit and schematic longitudinal section through fruit. Not necessarily to scale.
©PROSEA Foundation
Overview
Cinnamon is an evergreen tree up to 18 m tall (in cultivation, it is usually a dense bushy plant about 2-3 m high) and the trunk is low-branching, up to 60 cm in diameter. It is native to India, Sri Lanka, and to the Tenasserim Hills of Myanmar. It is likely to be present in many more tropical countries, especially in the Caribbean, Central and South America, and Africa. The principal producers (in order) are Indonesia, China, Vietnam, Sri Lanka and Madagascar but the best-quality cinnamon is produced in Sri Lanka. It is mainly propagated by seed, and as the fruits are much liked by birds, the seed is easily spread, but they quickly lose their viability. Vegetative propagation is also possible using cuttings, layering or division of old rootstocks. The major uses of cinnamon, both in whole and ground form, are for domestic culinary purposes and for flavouring processed foods, in perfumes, pharmaceutical products and in incense. Cinnamon bark is important in folk medicine. Cinnamon has become an invasive species on Indian and Pacific Ocean islands, especially the Seychelles and Samoa.
Importance
Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon), formerly known as C. zeylanicum, is a small tree up to 18 m tall with a diameter at breast height of 60 cm. It grows naturally in forests in Sri Lanka and the western Ghats of South India and is now under cultivation in many parts of the world, including the Seychelles, Java, Brazil and Jamaica. The best cinnamon bark is still produced in Sri Lanka, the main producer and exporter of cinnamon. In its natural habitat, this species is found growing from the lowlands up to an altitude of 700 m. C. verum is a hardy species which tolerates a wide range of tropical soils. C. verum is important in the spice industry, and its bark is used for flavouring curries, confectionery, baked goods, pharmaceuticals and dental preparations, and to perfume soap. Oils with differing properties may be obtained from green leaves, root bark, stem bark and seeds. The seeds contain 33% fixed oil which was formerly used for making candles.
Cinnamomum verum has medicinal properties and is prescribed for various gastrointestinal complaints. C. verum may enhance red blood cell haemolysis (Sallal and Alkofahi, 1996) and in Brazil, the leaves are used in folk medicine as an abortifacient. The bark oil has fungicidal properties against various Aspergillus species (Padrilah et al., 2020). C. verum can be propagated from seed, air layering, tissue culture and leaf cuttings. Once C. verum has been established for 2-3 years, it is coppiced to induce the formation of new shoots. The bark is harvested during the rainy season when the shoots reach 0.5-2 cm in diameter. Sandy soil mixed with organic matter promotes the development of high-quality bark. Disadvantages of C. verum include its susceptibility to injury by fire and its potential to become an aggressive colonizer, e.g. in the Seychelles (Fleischmann, 1997).
Summary of Invasiveness
Cinnamomum verum, the true Ceylon cinnamon tree, is native to South Asia but had already been introduced pan-tropically in the 1700s. The fruits are eaten by birds and spread widely, and it has become invasive on Indian and Pacific Ocean islands, especially the Seychelles and Samoa. In addition to the Seychelles, including Mahe and Praslin Islands, C. verum is also considered invasive on the island of Mayotte. Once established, it becomes the dominant tree in moist mostly lowland tropical forests, and through competition can gradually affect the species richness of native forest, as the dense canopy shades out all other plants, creating species-poor stands that may cover large areas. It is listed as a weed in the Pacific Islands Pest List Database.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
A member of the Lauraceae family, C, verum was first published by J. Presl in 1823 (Kew, 2023).
The etymology of cinnamon is derived from the Greek ‘kinnamomon’ (meaning spice). The Greeks borrowed the word from the Phoenicians, showing trade with the East from early times. Cinnamon is recorded in the Old Testament, Sanskrit and in Greek medicinal works and was used by the Egyptians for embalming purposes as early as 1485 BC (Orwa et al., 2009).
A systematic census of Cinnamomum species used as ‘cinnamon’ spice in northeast India identified 14 taxa (Baruah and Nath, 2007), and 14 were also noted by USDA-ARS (2009). A taxonomic key to differentiate the taxa, formulated on the basis of evaluated characters, is provided by (Baruah and Nath, 2007). However, other sources note very many more, up to about 350 species indigenous to the Asia-Pacific Region and tropical America, with approximately 50 tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs, mostly of economic value. The true cinnamon spice is obtained from C. verum, ‘verum’ derived from the Latin vera, meaning truth, however, marketed cinnamon may also come from a number of other species, notably Cinnamomum cassia. A species synonym, ‘zeylanicum’, refers to the place of origin, the island of Ceylon, or Sri Lanka as it is now known.
Plant Type
Perennial
Seed / spore propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Tree
Description
An evergreen tree up to 18 m tall (in cultivation, it is usually a dense bushy plant about 2-3 m high); bole low-branching, up to 60 cm in diameter; buttresses 60 cm tall, 70 cm deep, thin, light pinkish-brown; bark about 10 mm thick, strongly aromatic; the bark on young shoots is smooth and pale brown, on mature branches and stems rough, dark brown or brownish-grey; oil cells are located in the phloem, and are oval or round in cross-section; wood of mature trees varies from light brownish-grey to grey or yellowish-brown, without markings, more or less lustrous and faintly scented.
Leaves stiff, extipulate, opposite, somewhat variable in form and size, strongly aromatic; petiole 1-2 cm long, grooved on upper surface (Orwa et al., 2009). Lamina ovate to elliptical or lanceolate 5-25 cm x 3-10 cm, conspicuously 3-veined, or 5-veined, base rounded, apex acuminate, glabrous, coriaceous, with age shiny dark green above with pale glaucous beneath (Orwa et al., 2009). Leaves bright red when young (Kew, 2023).
Inflorescence consisting of lax axillary or terminal panicles on the end of twigs up to 10 cm long or longer; peduncle creamy white, softly hairy, 5-7 cm long; flowers small, 3 mm in diameter, with foetid smell, pale yellow, subtended by small ovate hairy bract; perianth 8 mm long, silky hairy, with short campanulate tube and six persistent tepals about 3 mm long; fertile stamens 9, in three whorls, with two small glands at the base of the stamens of the 3rd whorl; a fourth innermost whorl consists of three staminodes; filaments hairy, stout; anthers 4- or 2-celled; ovary superior, 1-celled, with a single ovule, style short. Fruit a 1-seeded berry, ellipsoidal to ovoid, 1-2 cm long, black when ripe, surrounded by the enlarged perianth at the base.
Distribution
Cinnamon is native to India and Sri Lanka (USDA-ARS, 2009), though it is also considered to be native to the Tenasserim Hills of Myanmar. Cinnamon (C. verum) and cassia (C. cassia) were among the first spices sought after by most early European explorers in the 1400s and 1500s. The Portuguese, occupying Sri Lanka in 1536, and the Dutch, taking over in 1656, established virtual monopolies on the trade. From a product collected from wild stands, it became a cultivated crop in Sri Lanka around 1770. It is likely to be present in many more tropical countries than stated in the distribution table, especially in the Caribbean, Central and South America, and Africa.
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Cinnamon (C. verum) and cassia were among the first spices sought after by 15th and 16th Century European explorers. The Portuguese who occupied Sri Lanka in 1536, and the Dutch who took over in 1656, established virtual trade monopolies. Originally collected from wild stands, it became a cultivated crop around 1770 in Sri Lanka (PROTA, 2023). It had been introduced to the Caribbean by 1762, and the French botanist Jean Baptiste D'Arnault claimed to have collected nutmeg and cinnamon in the Lesser Antilles and Venezuela in 1767 (Zumbroich, 2005). It was introduced into the Seychelles in 1772, and spread so rapidly that already by the end of the 1800s extensive cinnamon forests are said to have already existed. Cinnamon is today the most widely distributed and probably the most numerous plant in the Seychelles from sea level to the highest elevations. Cultivation in Java (Indonesia) began in 1825 but, after initial success, declined rapidly. Subsequently, Ceylon cinnamon has been taken to many countries (Seychelles Ministry of Environment, undated).
Risk of Introduction
A weed risk assessment for the Pacific gave C. verum a score of 10, meaning a high risk of invasion (PIER, 2009).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal (Non-Biotic)
Whereas no specific data is available for C. verum, fruit of the closely related C. camphora can float for up to 20 days in water with no effect on germination, thus water dispersal is possible (Firth, 1979).
Vector Transmission (Biotic)
Propagation is mainly by seed, and the fruits are much liked by birds and the seed is easily spread, though seeds quickly lose their viability. Vegetative propagation is possible by cuttings, layering or division of old rootstocks, and so it could be spread by vegetative means.
The fruits of C. verum have a particularly high nutritional quality, with individual berries containing 3.5 times more protein and 55 times more lipid than the median values of the native species, and thus it is considered more attractive to birds than native species (Kueffer et al., 2009). There appears to be a general tendency for native island plants to produce fruits of low energy content, perhaps reflecting reduced competition for dispersal agents on isolated islands, and invasive species were found to consistently produce fruits with a lower water content, resulting in a higher relative yield (i.e. dry pulp weight to total wet fruit weight ratio), and a higher energy content.
Intentional Introduction
Cinnamomum verum is highly valued as a commercial spice, and as such, it was widely introduced around the tropical world by early explorers during the 1700s and 1800s.
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crop production (pathway cause) | None | Yes | Yes | None |
| Digestion and excretion (pathway cause) | Birds | Yes | ||
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | None | Yes | ||
| Flooding and other natural disasters (pathway cause) | None | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Water (pathway vector) | Yes |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Several species of Cinnamomum are equally aromatic and also invasive, for example C. camphora and C. burmanni (PIER, 2009). Besides C. verum and C. camphora, C. cassia and C. tamala are also commercially important, whilst C. loureiroi, C. burmannii and C. citriodorum are also cultivated as sources of cinnamon spice (Prabhuji et al., 2021). For a taxonomic key to differentiate Cinnamomum species, see Baruah and Nath (2007).
Habitat
Cinnamomum verum requires a wet and warm climate with no extremes of cold and heat. Although there can be months of less rain, no prolonged dry season should occur and rain should be received on about 150 days per year (Orwa et al., 2009). It benefits from a well-distributed annual rainfall of 2000-2500 mm, and average temperatures of around 27°C (PROTA, 2023).
Local conditions, and particularly the type of soil under which the crop is grown, have a profound effect on the bark quality. Stony and rocky ground is unsuitable and waterlogged and marshy areas should be avoided since they result in an undesirable, bitter product, which is much less aromatic (Orwa et al., 2009). Cinnamon is also considered susceptible to salinity. In Sri Lanka and India, fine sandy and lateritic gravelly soils rather than rocky and stony substrates are best, whereas in the Seychelles and Madagascar more loamy soils are preferred (PROTA, 2023).
The native habitat of C. verum in principally tropical rainforest, but it can also be found, especially as an introduced invasive, in other forests, particularly moist secondary forests, forest gaps, rock outcrops and riparian zones (PIER, 2009). It grows best at low altitudes (below 500 m), and is usually grown without shade, but light shade does no harm since it is essentially a forest tree (PROTA, 2023).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Rocky areas / lava flows | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Reproductive Biology
The genus Cinnamomum is open-pollinated, and pollination is most probably by insects, especially flies. Fruits mature in 6 months. Propagation is mainly by seed, and as the fruits are much liked by birds, the seed is easily spread, though they quickly lose their viability. Vegetative propagation is possible, by cuttings, layering or division of old rootstocks.
Germination of seeds of the closely related C. camphora appears to be inhibited while the seed remains in contact with the flesh of ripe fruits, which appear to release inhibitory substances (Firth, 1979).
Physiology and Phenology
Seedling root growth is initially rapid, with the formation of a well-developed taproot followed by numerous spreading laterals, leading to a moderately deep and extensive root system (PROTA, 2023). There is normally a single central stem, but in cultivation trees are coppiced. The uncut tree has numerous, often drooping, branches beginning low on the trunk. Growth takes place in flushes, young leaves being reddish in colour, later turning dark green. In Sri Lanka, the trees tend to flower in January and the fruits ripen about 6 months later (Orwa et al., 2009).
Competition between the endemic palm Phoenicophorium borsigianum and the aggressively invasive alien C. verum in the Seychelles was found to be greatly influenced by the amount of available photosynthetically active radiation (Fleischmann et al., 1999). Both species showed a negative correlation between mean leaf area of seedlings and light levels. P. borsigianum responded significantly better to low gap light levels than C. verum and both species showed no further response to high levels of direct sunlight. P. borsigianum and probably other endemic palms act as a filter affecting the distribution and abundance of establishing C. verum seedlings. Mortality of C. verum was strongly negatively correlated with levels of photosynthetically active radiation, whereas P. borsigianum showed no such correlation (Fleischmann et al., 1999).
Environmental Requirements
Cinnamomum is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions. Cinnamon requires a warm and humid climate with a well distributed annual rainfall of around 2000-2500 mm, and average temperatures of about 27°C. Wild cinnamon trees are adapted to tropical evergreen rainforests. It grows best at low altitudes, and is usually grown without shade, but being essentially a forest tree, light shade is tolerated. It grows well on different soils in the tropics, but soil type has a pronounced effect on bark quality. Fine sandy and lateritic gravelly soils rather than rocky and stony substrates are best in Sri Lanka and India, but in the Seychelles and Madagascar more loamy soils are preferred. Cinnamon is considered susceptible to salinity, and a bitter product results from waterlogged and marshy conditions.
These ecological aspects are more or less the same for both cinnamon and cassia, although cassia is somewhat less specific than cinnamon. The species occurs up to 2000 m altitude, on well-drained hillside soils of low fertility and pH 4-6 (Ravindran, 2017).
Vegetation Types
moist forests
riparian forests
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Tolerated | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 18 | 8 | 0 | 2000 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute minimum temperature | 2 | 10 |
| Mean annual temperature | 26 | 31 |
| Mean maximum temperature of hottest month | 29 | 33 |
| Mean minimum temperature of coldest month | 12 | 31 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | 0 | 4 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
| Mean annual rainfall | 1500 | 3600 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Bimodal
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > Light
Soil texture > Medium
Soil reaction > Neutral
Soil drainage > Free
Soil drainage > Seasonally waterlogged
Soil Types
gravelly soils
lateritic soils
sandy soils
Notes on Pests
Stripe canker (Phytophthora cinnamomi) may damage trunks and branches of young trees under badly drained conditions in particular, e.g. in the higher rainfall areas of Hawaii (Orwa et al., 2009). Symptoms are vertical strips of dead bark, particularly near ground level. Root rots include black rot caused by Rosellinia spp., brown rot caused by Pyrrhoderma lamaoense, and white rot caused by Fomes lignosus [Rigidoporus microporus]. Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor [Phanerochaete salmonicolor]) causes pink encrustations on the stem with death of small shoots. Glomerella cingulata causes anthracnose. Rust (Aecidium cinnamomi) and other leaf and stem diseases, including Diplodia, Exobasidium, Gloeosporium and Leptosphaeria spp., Cephaleuros virescens and Pestalotiopsis cinnamomi, may occasionally cause damage.
In India and Sri Lanka, caterpillars of the cinnamon butterfly (Chilasa clytia) are destructive to new flushes, and shothole borers (Xylosandrus spp.) cause damage to stem and bark. Leaf miners (Phyllocnistis chrysophthalma, Acrocercops spp.), gall and leaf mites (Eriophyes boisi [Aceria doctersi], E. doctersi [A. doctersi], Typhlodromus spp.), leaf webbers (Sorolopha archimedias) and arboreal ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) cause occasional damage. Young seedlings are vulnerable to damage by agrotid larvae or mole crickets (Gryllotalpa spp.), and larvae of Popillia spp., attacking roots. Ceylon cinnamon is also attacked by root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). Storage pests of cinnamon quills include Lasioderma serricorne, Sitodrepa panicea [Stegobium paniceum] and Pyralis farinalis (PROTA, 2023).
Cinnamomum verum is also host to the following three groups and types of pests: 1) arthropods: Cyanophyllum scale (Abgrallaspis cyanophylli [Hemiberlesia cyanophylli]), cotton scale (Aspidiotus destructor), pink wax scale (Ceroplastes rubens), tessellated scale (Eucalymnatus tessellatus), Seychelles scale (Icerya seychellarum), acuminate scale (Kilifia acuminata); 2) fungi: Pestalotiopsis disseminata, Hemibeltrania cinnamomi; and 3) Nematodes: Criconemella ornata [Mesocriconema ornatum], Helicotylenchus dihystera, Helicotylenchus sp., Pratylenchus brachyurus, dagger nematode (Xiphinema brevicolle [Xiphinema brevicollum]) (SPC, 2023).
In Vietnam, a new Polylopha species is reportedly attacking cinnamon trees (Heppner and Bae, 2022). Since birds avidly eat the fruit, it is usual to net the trees if seeds are required (PROTA, 2023).
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
Stripe canker (Phytophthora cinnamomi) may damage trunks and branches of young trees in particular, symptoms being vertical strips of dead bark, particularly near ground level. Root rots include black rot caused by Rosellinia spp., brown rot caused by Pyrrhoderma lamaoense, and white rot caused by Fomes lignosus [Rigidoporus microporus]. Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor [Phanerochaete salmonicolor]) causes pink encrustations on the stem with death of small shoots. Glomerella cingulata causes anthracnose. Rust (Aecidium cinnamomi) and other leaf and stem diseases (Cephaleuros virescens, Diplodia spp., Exobasidium spp., Gloeosporium spp., Leptosphaeria spp. and Pestalotiopsis cinnamomi) may occasionally cause damage.
In India and Sri Lanka, caterpillars of the cinnamon butterfly (Chilasa clytia) are destructive to new flushes, and shothole borers (Xylosandrus spp.) cause damage to stem and bark. Leaf miners (Acrocercops spp., Phyllocnistis chrysophthalma), gall and leaf mites (Eriophyes bois [Aceria doctersi], E. doctersi [A. doctersi], Typhlodromus spp.), leaf webbers (Sorolopha archimedias) and arboreal ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) cause occasional damage. Young seedlings are vulnerable to damage by agrotid larvae or mole crickets (Gryllotalpa spp.), and larvae of Popillia spp., attacking roots. Ceylon cinnamon is also attacked by root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.). Storage pests of cinnamon quills include Lasioderma serricorne, Pyralis farinalis and Sitodrepa panicea [Stegobium paniceum] (PROTA, 2023).
Natural enemies
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Positive |
| Environment (generally) | Negative |
| Human health | Positive |
Impact: Economic
Being highly valued as a commercial spice, C. verum has strong positive economic impacts. Production data from the main exporting countries are detailed in FAOSTAT (2008). As a spice, it is considered a major Non-Timber Forest Product in many countries including Myanmar (World Bank, 2019). Sri Lanka produces the largest quantity and the best quality of bark of Ceylon cinnamon, mainly as quills. Other products include cinnamon leaf oil, and cinnamon bark oil and oleoresin are mainly prepared in importing countries. The USA and western Europe are the main markets for oils. Cinnamon bark oil is very expensive, reflecting the high raw material cost, whereas cinnamon leaf oil is much cheaper, but still more expensive than clove leaf oil, an alternative source of eugenol.
Impact: Environmental
In the Seychelles, the aggressive C. verum has invaded mountain mist forest and intermediate forest habitats and threatens several endemic palm species, notably Phoenicophorium borsigianum, but also Deckenia nobilis and Roscheria melanochaetes (Fleischmann et al., 1999) and other native trees such as Northia seychellana (Kueffer et al., 2008). Through competition, C. verum has reportedly resulted in reduction of native diversity, habitat degradation and habitat or refugia replacement/loss in the Seychelles (Global Invasive Species Database, 2023). C. verum is likely to persist as a major invader on Silhouette Island, Seychelles, due to wider seed dispersal, but the stability of the native forest composition in most areas was confirmed over a ten-year period over this time-scale (Gerlach, 2004).
Plant species invading nutrient-poor ecosystems are likely to have their greatest impact on the native plant community by competing for resources below-ground. In an infertile, phosphorus-poor ecosystem in the Seychelles, the dense topsoil root mat produced by mature C. verum trees suppressed growth of young trees, mainly by increasing competition for scarce nutrients (Kueffer et al., 2007). Stands of C. verum exerted a strong below-ground filtering effect on seedling regeneration and influenced secondary forest succession by selectively reducing the establishment of invasive and small-seeded species, exerting a strong influence on forest regeneration (Kueffer et al., 2007).
Some invasive alien plants such as C. verum accelerate nutrient turnover in the ecosystem because the litter they produce has a high specific leaf area, high concentrations of nutrients and low concentrations of lignin and polyphenolics, and thus they decompose rapidly. Such litter properties are typical of plants from nutrient-rich but not nutrient-poor ecosystems, and species that successfully invade nutrient-poor ecosystems might not exhibit them (Kueffer et al., 2008). Even on the very nutrient-poor soils of the granitic Seychelles, pioneer invasive species like C. verum produce more decomposable litter and therefore have the potential to alter rates of nutrient cycling. However, the small differences in soil fertility beneath native and invasive trees suggest that impacts of invasive species on nutrient cycling are more complex and less predictable in nutrient-poor ecosystems, where several nutrients may be co-limiting, and native and alien species coexist (Kueffer et al., 2008).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Abundant in its native range
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Reproduces asexually
Has high genetic variability
Impact outcomes
Altered trophic level
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Rapid growth
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Economic Value
The spice (Ceylon) cinnamon is the dried inner bark of C. verum. The major uses of cinnamon, both in whole and ground form, are for domestic culinary purposes and for flavouring processed foods (bakery products, sauces, pickles, puddings, beverages, chewing gums, confectionery), in perfumes, pharmaceutical products, mouthwash, toothpaste and in incense. In Mexico, cinnamon bark is used to flavour coffee (PROTA, 2023).
Cinnamon bark is an important folk medicine. Key medical characteristics are antimicrobial, wound healing, anti-HIV, anti-diabetic, anti-anxiety and anti-Parkinson’s (Pathak and Sharma, 2021). Cinnamon bark is astringent, stimulant and carminative. One of its key components, cinnamaldehyde, is anaesthetic, anti-pyretic, hypotensive, hypothermic and sedative (PROTA, 2023). Cinnamon bark can also stop nausea and vomiting, for example as a result of chemotherapy (Amin et al., 2022). Cinnamon bark oil is used in pharmaceutical and dental preparations. Historically, cinnamon drops were regarded as a remedy for many common disorders, as a tonic and a sedative in childbirth (Orwa et al., 2009). In the past, cinnamon served as a breath sweetener. In medieval times, cinnamon was distilled to produce cordials, particularly to aid digestion. In the Orient, cinnamon and its near relatives are still widely used for remedies locally, particularly for respiratory and gastrointestinal disorders and as an aphrodisiac (Orwa et al., 2009). It is taken to relieve headache in the Philippines and the Pacific and in Colombia, cinnamon sticks are chewed to speed parturition. In Haiti, the essence is taken orally for spasms and for stomach and intestinal gas and used topically as a poultice for rheumatism. In Ghana, the bark of young shoots is used as a carminative to treat catarrh, and bark extract is an intestinal astringent (Orwa et al., 2009). In terms of dentistry, cinnamon essential oil, cinnamon extracts and pure compounds demonstrate significant antimicrobial activities against oral pathogens and could therefore be beneficial in caries and periodontal disease prevention as well as endodontics and candidiasis treatment (Yanakiev, 2020). Cinnamon leaf oil is especially interesting for its antioxidant and anti-bacterial properties.
The bark can further be used for the distillation of bark oil and for the preparation of solvent-extracted oleoresin. Cinnamon bark oil is used in meat and fast-food seasoning, baked goods, confectionary, sauces and pickles and cola-type drinks (Orwa et al., 2009). The leaves are used for distillation of leaf oil, which has a different composition than bark oil. Its major constituent is eugenol rather than cinnamaldehyde. Eugenol is strongly antiseptic (PROTA, 2023). It has a warm, spicy, but rather harsh odour, which lacks the rich body of the bark oil. The leaf oil is also used as a flavouring agent for savoury snacks and seasonings (Orwa et al., 2009). As a cheap fragrance, it is also added to soaps and insecticides. Leaves left after trimming, prunings and cut stems provide the raw material for producing cinnamon leaf oil.
The dried inner bark of Ceylon cinnamon contains steam-volatile oils, fixed oils, tannin, resin, proteins, cellulose, pentosans, mucilage, starch, calcium oxalate and minerals (PROTA, 2023). The main volatile oils abundant in the plant including cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid and cinnamate (Pathak and Sharma, 2021). It is phytochemically interesting, however, that the same tree species produces three distinct essential oils, characterized by eugenol in the leaves, cinnamaldehyde in stem bark, and camphor in root bark. The essential oil content varies from 0.5-2.0% in bark and 0.7-1.2% in leaves. Cinnamon and cassia barks are interchangeable in many applications, and the same applies to cinnamon bark oil, cassia bark oils and (Chinese) cassia leaf oil.
As a source of eugenol, however, cinnamon leaf oil has lost ground to the cheaper clove leaf oil, except when the eugenol is needed for conversion into isoeugenol (used in confectionary products). The oleoresin is used mainly by the flavour industry in western Europe and North America for flavouring processed foods and in the soft-drink industry. Cinnamon bark oil is used in flavouring (processed foods, beverages, dental and pharmaceutical preparations), much less in perfumery because it has some skin-sensitizing properties. As a powerful local stimulant, it is sometimes prescribed in gastrodynia, flatulent colic and gastric debility. In European phytomedicine, cinnamon bark oil (0.05-0.2 g daily intake) is used in teas and other galenicals for its anti-bacterial, carminative and fungistatic properties, and also for loss of appetite and dyspeptic disturbances. The maximum permitted level in food products is 0.06%. Cinnamon leaf oil is used in flavouring and perfumery, and as a source of its major constituent eugenol. Eugenol is used for the synthesis of vanillin, and for conversion into iso-eugenol, used for flavouring confectionary products. Cinnamon leaf oil is extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetic and alcoholic perfumery, with a maximum permitted level of 0.8% in the perfume.
Ceylon cinnamon has to be harvested during the wet season because then the cambium is active and the cortex can be easily separated from the wood. The shoots are harvested when they are 2-3 m tall and 1.2-5.0 cm in diameter. Shoots in the centre of the clump are cut low down, while those on the outside are cut higher up to ensure that new buds sprout mainly on the outside of the clump. In Sri Lanka, harvest peaks are in May-June and October-November. The first harvest is of inferior quality (thick bark), but this improves in later harvests. Best quality cinnamon is obtained from thin bark from the middle part of shoots in the centre of the stool. Leaves and twigs are cut off and used for mulching, or the leaves are retained for distillation. The harvested shoots are bundled and taken to a processing unit for peeling and further preparation.
The seeds contain about 30% fixed oil, used in India for candle making. The oil is obtained by boiling crushed ripe fruits.
The timber is light to moderately heavy (specific gravity 0.5-0.7), usually straight-grained, even-textured and weak. It seasons easily but warps, splits, cracks and stains. It is suitable only as low-grade board wood. The sapwood is light brown and slightly soft, whilst the heartwood is brownish-yellow with green case, or olive to blackish-brown, with a satiny or silky lustre, straight and often rosy grain with a spicy odour (PROTA, 2023).
Uses List
Materials > Bark products
Materials > Carved material
Materials > Essential oils
Materials > Miscellaneous materials
Materials > Oils
Materials > Pesticide
Materials > Wood/timber
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Fuels > Fuelwood
Human food and beverage > Leaves (for beverage)
Human food and beverage > Spices and culinary herbs
Drugs, stimulants, social uses > Miscellaneous drugs, stimulants and social uses
Wood Products
Containers > Boxes
Containers > Crates
Other > Wood extractives (including oil)
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Agronomic Aspects
Propagation and Planting
Propagation is by seed or by vegetative means. Fruits are much liked by birds and the seed is easily spread, so the fruits have to be bagged for collection. Fruit pulp is allowed to rot before seeds are removed, washed and dried. Seeds quickly lose their viability. Fresh seeds germinate in 20-25 days. They are sown in nurseries or directly in the field. The nursery bed (1 m wide) should have a well-prepared rich sandy soil and be lightly shaded. Seeds are sown close together. Clumps of seedlings are transferred into bags after 4 months in the nursery and transplanted to the field after another 4-5 months. Five or more seedlings are always planted closely together in a small circle, developing into an indiscriminate clump.
Vegetative propagation is by cuttings, layering or division of old rootstocks. Young cuttings with 2-3 nodes are planted in polybags and placed under polythene cover; they are ready for field planting after 12-18 months. Old rootstocks can be divided. For this, old plants are cut down to within 15 cm of the ground, and suitable parts of the rootstock planted out with adhering soil. Harvesting can start 1-1.5 years after planting out in the field compared with 3 years for seedlings. Modern micropropagation methods have also been successfully applied to produce large numbers of plantlets.
Field spacings of 0.9-1.2 m x 0.9-1.2 m are recommended in Sri Lanka for commercial plantations, but wider planting up to 3 m x 3 m is also practised with a higher number of plants per clump (PROTA, 2023).
Husbandry
After-planting care mainly consists of weeding, 2-4 times a year. Stems are kept straight by pruning. Manure or plant residues are commonly applied as fertiliser, but chemical fertilizers, although recommended, are little used. Placing phosphate in the planting holes is advantageous, single superphosphate being preferable because of the small amounts of sulphur it contains. Annual application of a 2:1.6:1.5 mixture of urea, rock phosphate and potassium chloride is recommended at a rate of 40-60 kg/ha to young trees, and 100 kg/ha to mature trees. A nitrogenous top dressing at the beginning of the rainy season is advisable for quick (re)growth of (coppiced) trees. It is advisable to return processing residues to the field as mulch. Plants are coppiced for the first time after 2 years, the stem being cut to within 10-15 cm from the ground and covered with earth, allowing 4-6 shoots per stool to grow for a further 2 years before harvesting. After harvesting, all unwanted shoots and stumps are cut off the stool, which is then covered with earth, and new shoots are allowed to grow. The number of shoots per stool normally increases to a maximum at 8 years and declines after 10-12 years. A cinnamon plantation can remain profitable for 15-45 years, mainly depending on the standard of management (PROTA, 2023).
Harvesting
Ceylon cinnamon has to be harvested during the wet season because then the cambium is active and the cortex can be easily separated from the wood. The shoots are harvested when they are 2-3 m tall and 1.2-5.0 cm in diameter. Shoots in the centre of the clump are cut low down, while those on the outside are cut higher up to ensure that new buds sprout mainly on the outside of the clump. In Sri Lanka, harvest peaks are in May-June and October-November. The first harvest is of inferior quality (thick bark), but this improves in later harvests. Best quality cinnamon is obtained from thin bark from the middle part of shoots in the centre of the stool. Leaves and twigs are cut off and used for mulching, or the leaves are retained for distillation. The harvested shoots are bundled and taken to a processing unit for peeling and further preparation (PROTA, 2023).
Yield
The first crop, 3-4 years after planting, yields 50-120 kg/ha of quills, increasing in subsequent crops to 175-250 kg/ha, before yields decline after 10-12 years. Commercial cinnamon bark is not more than 0.5 cm thick and is of a dull pale brown colour. The inner surface is somewhat darker than the outer one and is finely striated longitudinally. By-products of the production of quills are cinnamon chips (averaging 60 kg/ha) and leaves (2.5 t/ha fresh weight). Large individual trees may yield up to 45 kg of dry bark. Average annual bark yields of 120 kg/ha have been reported for the Seychelles, and an annual yield of fresh leaves of about 1.9 t/ha, yielding 0.6-0.8% leaf oil (11-16 kg/ha). Leaf-oil yields of 35-40 kg/ha have also been reported (PROTA, 2023).
Handling after Harvest
Peeling consists of stripping the bark for the preparation of quills from the inner bark. The outer bark is first removed and the stem then rubbed to loosen the inner bark. Two horizontal cuts are made 30 cm apart and two longitudinal slits on opposite sides of the shoot. The inner bark is then separated from the wood. Alternatively, the outer and inner bark are separated from the wood together. The strips are packed together, wrapped and left overnight for slight fermentation, facilitating the subsequent scraping off of the outer bark (epidermis, cork and green cortex). The curled pieces are assembled into compound quills of 1 m length by joining the best and longest quills on the outside and smaller pieces inside the longer ones. They are dried in the shade until they are yellowish-brown. They are sometimes bleached by sulphur treatment. The grading of Ceylon cinnamon is rather elaborate compared with the grading of cinnamon from other sources. The various forms and qualities are known as unscraped bark, scraped bark, compound quills, simple quills, quillings (broken pieces of quills), featherings (bark of twigs and twisted shoots) and chips (trimmings, shavings). Quills are further graded according to the thickness of the bark. Grinding usually takes place in the consuming countries.
Bark to be distilled for oil should not be allowed to become damp, as this encourages mould or fermentation, which affects oil composition. Bark oil is obtained by steam or hydro-distillation with cohobation, or solvent extraction of the distillate. Solvent extraction of the distillate gives the finest quality oil.
Leaves stripped from shoots, together with small leafy twigs and stems are left in the field for 3-4 days and then transported to the distillery. Root bark oil is only produced when a plantation is uprooted for replanting. Roots are cleaned, trimmed and peeled prior to distilling (PROTA, 2023).
Silviculture Characteristics
Field spacings of 0.9-1.2 m x 0.9-1.2 m are recommended in Sri Lanka for commercial plantations, but wider planting up to 3 m x 3 m is also practised with a higher number of plants per clump.
Silviculture Characteristics
Tolerates > Drought
Tolerates > Termites
Ability to > Coppice
Ability to > Sucker
Silviculture Practice
Propagation and Planting
Propagation is by seed or by vegetative means. Fruits are much liked by birds and the seed is easily spread, so the fruits have to be bagged for collection. Fruit pulp is allowed to rot before seeds are removed, washed and dried. Seeds quickly lose their viability. Fresh seeds germinate in 20-25 days. They are sown in nurseries or directly in the field. The nursery bed (1 m wide) should have a well-prepared rich sandy soil and be lightly shaded (PROTA, 2023). Seeds are sown close together. Clumps of seedlings are transferred into bags after 4 months in the nursery and transplanted to the field after another 4-5 months. Five or more seedlings are always planted closely together in a small circle, developing into an indiscriminate clump.
Vegetative propagation is by cuttings, layering or division of old rootstocks. Young cuttings with 2-3 nodes are planted in polybags and placed under polythene cover; they are ready for field planting after 12-18 months. Old rootstocks can be divided. For this, old plants are cut down to within 15 cm of the ground, and suitable parts of the rootstock planted out with adhering soil. Harvesting can start 1-1.5 years after planting out in the field compared with 3 years for seedlings. Modern micropropagation methods have also been successfully applied to produce large numbers of plantlets. Field spacings of 0.9-1.2 m x 0.9-1.2 m are recommended in Sri Lanka for commercial plantations, but wider planting up to 3 m x 3 m is also practised with a higher number of plants per clump (PROTA, 2023).
Husbandry
After-planting care mainly consists of weeding, 2-4 times a year. Stems are kept straight by pruning. Manure or plant residues are commonly applied as fertilizer, whilst chemical fertilizers, although recommended, are little used. Placing phosphate in the planting holes is advantageous, single superphosphate being preferable because of the small amounts of sulphur it contains. Annual application of a 2:1.5:1.5 mixture of urea, rock phosphate and potassium chloride is recommended at a rate of 40-60 kg/ha to young trees, and 100 kg/ha to mature trees (PROTA, 2023). A nitrogenous top dressing at the beginning of the rainy season is advisable for quick (re)growth of (coppiced) trees. It is advisable to return processing residues to the field as mulch. Plants are coppiced for the first time after 2 years, the stem being cut to within 10-15 cm from the ground and covered with earth, allowing 4-6 shoots per stool to grow for a further 2 years before harvesting. C. verum usually coppices very well. After harvesting, all unwanted shoots and stumps are cut off the stool, which is then covered with earth, and new shoots are allowed to grow. The number of shoots per stool normally increases to a maximum at 8 years and declines after 10-12 years. A cinnamon plantation can remain profitable for 15-45 years, mainly depending on the standard of management.
Harvesting
Ceylon cinnamon has to be harvested during the wet season because then the cambium is active and the cortex can be easily separated from the wood. Cutting the stems during the rainy season facilitates the peeling of the bark in two longitudinal strips (Orwa et al., 2009). The shoots are harvested when they are 2-3 m tall and 1.2-5.0 cm in diameter. Shoots in the centre of the clump are cut low down, while those on the outside are cut higher up to ensure that new buds sprout mainly on the outside of the clump. Whilst the details of harvesting practice differ slightly from country to country, the basic principles are the same. In Sri Lanka, harvest peaks are in May-June and October-November. The first harvest after 3-4 years is of inferior quality (thick bark), but this improves in later harvests. Best quality cinnamon is obtained from thin bark from the middle part of shoots in the centre of the stool. Leaves and twigs are cut off and used for mulching, or the leaves are retained for distillation. The harvested shoots are bundled and taken to a processing unit for peeling and further preparation.
Whereas under cultivation, the continual removal of shoots by cropping almost to ground level results in the formation of a dense bush 2-2.5 m high with a number of leafy, coppiced shoots, wild trees reach 20 m in height (Orwa et al., 2009). Cinnamon is cut every 2 years on plantations and the flush of straight shoots generated by coppicing produces the bark that is peeled for cinnamon quills.
Yield
The first crop, 3-4 years after planting, yields 50-120 kg/ha of quills, increasing in subsequent crops to 175-250 kg/ha, before yields decline after 10-12 years. Commercial cinnamon bark is not more than 0.5 cm thick and is of a dull pale brown colour. The inner surface is somewhat darker than the outer one and is finely striated longitudinally. By-products of the production of quills are cinnamon chips (averaging 60 kg/ha) and leaves (2.5 t/ha fresh weight). Large individual trees may yield up to 45 kg of dry bark. Average annual bark yields of 120 kg/ha have been reported for the Seychelles, and an annual yield of fresh leaves of about 1.9 t/ha, yielding 0.6-0.8% leaf oil (11-16 kg/ha). Leaf-oil yields of 35-40 kg/ha have also been reported.
Handling after Harvest
Peeling consists of stripping the bark for the preparation of quills from the inner bark. The outer bark is first removed and the stem then rubbed to loosen the inner bark. Two horizontal cuts are made 30 cm apart and two longitudinal slits on opposite sides of the shoot. The inner bark is then separated from the wood. Alternatively, the outer and inner bark are separated from the wood together. The strips are packed together, wrapped and left overnight for slight fermentation, facilitating the subsequent scraping off of the outer bark (epidermis, cork and green cortex). The curled pieces are assembled into compound quills of 1 m length by joining the best and longest quills on the outside and smaller pieces inside the longer ones. Inner bark curls form the cinnamon quill of commerce. They are dried in the shade until they are yellowish-brown. They are sometimes bleached by sulphur treatment. The grading of Ceylon cinnamon is rather elaborate compared with the grading of cinnamon from other sources. The various forms and qualities are known as unscraped bark, scraped bark, compound quills, simple quills, quillings (broken pieces of quills), featherings (bark of twigs and twisted shoots) and chips (trimmings, shavings). Quills are further graded according to the thickness of the bark. Grinding usually takes place in the consuming countries.
Poor ‘quillings’ are ground up and steamed to extract essential oil (Orwa et al., 2009). Bark to be distilled for oil should not be allowed to become damp, as this encourages mould or fermentation, which affects oil composition. Bark oil is obtained by steam or hydro-distillation with cohobation, or solvent extraction of the distillate. Solvent extraction of the distillate gives the finest quality oil. Leaves stripped from shoots, together with small leafy twigs and stems are left in the field for 3-4 days and then transported to the distillery. Root bark oil is only produced when a plantation is uprooted for replanting. Roots are cleaned, trimmed and peeled prior to distilling.
Silviculture Practice
Seed Storage > Recalcitrant
Vegetative Propagation by > Air Layering
Vegetative Propagation by > Cuttings
Vegetative Propagation by > Grafting
Vegetative Propagation by > Tissue Culture
Stand Establishment Using > Direct Sowing
Stand Establishment Using > Natural Regeneration
Stand Establishment Using > Planting Stock
Management
In terms of yield, the first crop, 3-4 years after planting, yields 50-120 kg/ha of quills, increasing in subsequent crops to 175-250 kg/ha, before yields decline after 10-12 years. Yields of quills depend on crop cycles, for example a three-year or a ten-year cycle. Yields range from 70 to 875 kg/ha, with the world average being 762 kg/ha. Commercial cinnamon bark is not more than 0.5 cm thick and is of a dull pale brown colour. The inner surface is somewhat darker than the outer one and is finely striated longitudinally. By-products of the production of quills are cinnamon chips (averaging 60 kg/ha) and leaves (2.5 t/ha fresh weight). Large individual trees may yield up to 45 kg of dry bark. Average annual bark yields of 120 kg/ha have been reported for the Seychelles, and an annual yield of fresh leaves of about 1.9 t/ha, yielding 0.6-0.8% leaf oil (11-16 kg/ha). Leaf-oil yields of 35-40 kg/ha have also been reported. A cinnamon plantation can remain profitable for 15-45 years, mainly depending on the standard of management.
Sri Lanka produces the best quality and largest quantity of bark of Ceylon cinnamon, mainly as quills. In 1998, total harvested areas were estimated by FAO at 24,000 ha in Sri Lanka and 3400 ha in the Seychelles, producing 12,000 t and 600 t respectively (PROTA, 2023). Exports are about 6000 t annually. Most cinnamon leaf oil also originates from Sri Lanka and the Seychelles, whereas cinnamon bark oil and oleoresin are largely prepared in the importing countries. The USA and western Europe are the main markets for these oils. Cinnamon bark oil is very expensive (US$ 385/kg in 1993) which reflects the high raw material cost. Cinnamon leaf oil is much cheaper (US$ 8.25/kg in 1994) but still more expensive than clove leaf oil, an alternative source of eugenol (PROTA, 2023).
Being one of the most important export crops in Sri Lanka, a study was conducted to evaluate important quantitative and qualitative aspects of cinnamon yield, namely, cumulative bark yield, bark dry matter percentage, biological yield, the composition of biological yield and organoleptic properties under modified planting systems (Aluthgamage et al., 2022). This showed significant effect of harvesting interval and interaction effect between planting material and spatial pattern on the cumulative bark yield for 2 years. In addition, the study indicated that vegetatively propagated plants consist of a higher bark oil content and cinnamaldehyde percentage than seedlings, whilst seedlings consist of higher eugenol and cinnamyl acetate percentage than vegetatively propagated plants.
Cultivation
Planting stock production
Fresh seeds are sown in nurseries or directly in the field. The nursery bed (1 m wide) should have a well-prepared rich sandy soil and be lightly shaded. Seeds are sown close together. Clumps of seedlings are transferred into bags after 4 months in the nursery and transplanted to the field after another 4-5 months. Five or more seedlings are always planted closely together in a small circle, developing into an indiscriminate clump (PROTA, 2023).
Site preparation and planting
Field spacings of 0.9-1.2 m x 0.9-1.2 m are recommended in Sri Lanka for commercial plantations, but wider planting up to 3 m x 3 m is also practised with a higher number of plants per clump, which results in about 1100 plants/ha (PROTA, 2023).
Fertilizers and manures
After-planting care mainly consists of weeding 2-4 times a year, until the weeds are shaded out. Manure or plant residues are commonly applied as fertilizer, but chemical fertilizers, although recommended, are little used. Placing phosphate in the planting holes is advantageous, single superphosphate being preferable because of the small amounts of sulphur it contains. Annual application of a 2:1.6:1.5 mixture of urea, rock phosphate and potassium chloride is recommended at a rate of 40-60 kg/ha to young trees, and 100 kg/ha to mature trees. A nitrogenous top dressing at the beginning of the rainy season is advisable for quick (re)growth of (coppiced) trees. It is advisable to return processing residues to the field as mulch (PROTA, 2023).
Pruning, training and thinning
Stems are kept straight by pruning. Plants are coppiced for the first time after 2 years, the stem being cut to within 10-15 cm from the ground and covered with earth, allowing 4-6 shoots per stool to grow for a further 2 years before harvesting. After harvesting, all unwanted shoots and stumps are cut off the stool, which is then covered with earth, and new shoots are allowed to grow. The number of shoots per stool normally increases to a maximum at 8 years and declines after 10-12 years. A cinnamon plantation can remain profitable for 15-45 years, mainly depending on the standard of management (PROTA, 2023).
Harvesting
Harvesting
Depending on species, first harvest is 3-7 years after germination; subsequent harvesting continues twice a year. The species coppice well, so the stumps will regrow into a new stand. The shoots have to be kept straight by regular pruning. Sri Lankan cinnamon has to be harvested during the wet season because then the cambium is active and the cortex can be easily separated from the wood. The shoots are harvested when the bark colour of the stem turns to brown, they are 2-3 m tall and 1.2-5.0 cm in diameter. Shoots in the centre of the clump are cut low down, while those on the outside are cut higher up to ensure that new buds sprout mainly on the outside of the clump. Shoots are harvested by a sharp basal cut using a curved knife.
In Sri Lanka, harvest peaks are in May-June and October-November. The first harvest is of inferior quality (thick bark), but this improves in later harvests. Best quality cinnamon is obtained from thin bark from the middle part of shoots in the centre of the stool. Leaves and twigs are cut off and used for mulching, or the leaves are retained for distillation. The harvested shoots are bundled and taken to a processing unit for peeling and further preparation (Orwa et al., 2009).
Yield
Commercial cinnamon plantations can be productive for 20 to 40 years. The first crop yields 50-120 kg/ha of quills, increasing in subsequent crops to 175-250 kg/ha before yields decline after 10-12 years. Yields of quills depend on crop cycles, for example a three-year or a ten-year cycle. Yields range from 70 to 875 kg/ha, with the world average being 762 kg/ha. Commercial cinnamon bark is not more than 0.5 cm thick and is of a dull pale brown colour. The inner surface is somewhat darker than the outer one and is finely striated longitudinally. By-products of the production of quills are cinnamon chips (averaging 60 kg/ha) and leaves (2.5 t fresh weight/ha). Large individual trees may yield up to 45 kg of dry bark. Average annual bark yields of 120 kg/ha have been reported for the Seychelles, and an annual yield of fresh leaves of about 1.9 t/ha, yielding 0.6-0.8% leaf oil (11-16 kg/ha). Leaf oil yields of 35-40 kg/ha have also been reported.
Principal sources: Ravindran (2017)
Postharvest Treatment
Postharvest handling
Peeling consists of stripping the bark for the preparation of quills from the inner bark. The outer bark is first removed and the stem then rubbed to loosen the inner bark. Two horizontal cuts are made 30 cm apart and two longitudinal slits on opposite sides of the shoot. The inner bark is then separated from the wood. Alternatively, the outer and inner bark are separated from the wood together. The strips are packed together, wrapped and left overnight for slight fermentation, facilitating the subsequent scraping off of the outer bark (epidermis, cork and green cortex). The curled pieces are assembled into compound quills of 1 m length by joining the best and longest quills on the outside and smaller pieces inside the longer ones. They are dried in the shade until they are yellowish-brown. They are sometimes bleached by sulphur treatment (Orwa et al., 2009).
Grading
The grading of Ceylon cinnamon is rather elaborate compared with the grading of cinnamon from other sources. The various forms and qualities are known as unscraped bark, scraped bark, compound quills, simple quills, quillings (broken pieces of quills), featherings (bark of twigs and twisted shoots) and chips (trimmings, shavings). Quills are further graded according to the thickness of the bark. Grinding usually takes place in the consuming countries (Orwa et al., 2009).
Processing
Bark to be distilled for oil should not be allowed to become damp, as this encourages mould or fermentation, which affects oil composition. Bark oil is obtained by steam or hydro-distillation with cohobation, or solvent extraction of the distillate. Solvent extraction of the distillate gives the finest quality oil.
Leaves stripped from shoots, together with small leafy twigs and stems are left in the field for 3-4 days and then transported to the distillery. Root bark oil is only produced when a plantation is uprooted for replanting. Roots are cleaned, trimmed and peeled prior to distilling (Orwa et al., 2009).
Genetic Resources and Breeding
In Sri Lanka, several wild and semi-wild types and local cultivars are recognized, with distinctive local names, mainly based on aroma and therefore are location-specific. However, there are no germplasm collections of C. verum and surprisingly little improvement work has been done considering its economic value. It is possible that it could hybridize with some other species in the genus.
Since Cinnamomum is open-pollinated, selection, together with vegetative propagation of clonal material would be advantageous. Some selection for superior strains is carried out in Sri Lanka and the Seychelles (PROTA, 2023).
Major Cultivars
Several wild and semi-wild types and local recognized in Sri Lanka, with distinctive local names. Distinction is mainly based on aroma and is therefore location-specific (PROTA, 2023).
Propagation
Propagation is by seed or by vegetative means.
Seed (sexual propagation)
Fruits are much liked by birds and the seed is easily spread, so the fruits have to be bagged for collection. Fruit pulp is allowed to rot before seeds are removed, washed and dried. Seeds exhibit recalcitrant storage behaviour and quickly lose their viability. At ambient temperature, viability is reduced to 80% after 7 days; and complete loss of viability after 40 days of storage in polythene bags at room temperature (Orwa et al., 2009). Seeds are usually sown in a nursery; fresh seeds germinate in about 20-25 days. After 4 months, the seedlings are transplanted into containers. After another 4-5 months, the young plants are transplanted into the field. Seeds can also be sown directly in the field.
Vegetative (asexual propagation)
Vegetative propagation is by cuttings, layering or division of old rootstocks. Young cuttings with 2-3 nodes are planted in polybags and placed under polythene cover; they are ready for field planting after 12-18 months. Old rootstocks can be divided. For this, old plants are cut down to within 15 cm of the ground, and suitable parts of the rootstock planted out with adhering soil. Harvesting can start 1-1.5 years after planting out in the field compared with 3 years for seedlings. Cinnamon can also be propagated by layering shoots.
In vitro propagation
Modern micropropagation methods have also been successfully applied to produce large numbers of plantlets.
Principal sources: Ravindran (2017)
Rootstocks
Cinnamomum verum can be propagated vegetatively by cuttings or layering, or by the division of old rootstocks. The advantage of dividing old rootstocks is that stems are ready for cutting about 12-18 months after planting, compared to as much as 3 years for seedlings (PROTA, 2023).
Nutritional Value
Cinnamon oil has the following physicochemical properties: Bark oil: specific gravity, 1.0101.030; optical rotation, slightly laevorotatory; refractive index, 1.573-1.591; aldehyde content, 65-76%; eugenol content, 4-10%; solubility, soluble in 2-3 volumes of 70% alcohol. Furthermore, cinnamon bark oil is a pale-yellow liquid. In addition to aldehyde and eugenol, important components (> 1%) include cinnamyl acetate, linalool, 1,8-cineole, 'BETA'-caryophyllene, and benzyl benzoate (PROTA, 2023). The powerful characteristic note might be a result of methyl-n-amylketone in combination with other ketones and aldehydes. Oil from bark chips is richer in eugenol (30-38%) and poorer in cinnamaldehyde (44%). Leaf oil: specific gravity, 1.030-1.050; optical rotation, 1°96’0°40’; refractive index, 1.529-1.537; aldehyde content, 4%; eugenol content, 77.3-90.5%; solubility, soluble in 1.5 volumes of 70% alcohol. Cinnamon leaves contain 0.7 – 1.2% essential oil. The leaf oil has a brownish-yellow colour and its composition is more like clove oil. Besides eugenol, important component (> 1%) include cinnamaldehyde, benzyl benzoate, linalool and 'BETA'-caryophyllene (PROTA, 2023).
Cinnamon bark has about 12.0-28.8% crude fibre, 6.9-32.0% carbohydrate, 3.1-3.4% protein, 0-2.1% fixed oil and 0.5-5.1% essential oil.
Principal sources: Ravindran (2017)
Monographs on the physiological properties of cinnamon bark oil and cinnamon leaf oil have been published by the Research Institute for Fragrance Materials (RIFM).
Phytosanitary Issues/Food Safety
Food safety
Cinnamon, its powder and extract are quite safe when used as spice or as herbal remedy in the form of an infusion. Unlike the Chinese cinnamon (Chinese cassia) that contains the toxic coumarin, cinnamon (or Sri Lankan cinnamon) does not contain coumarins and hence is non-toxic. However, in view of the high cinnamaldehyde content in the bark and eugenol in the leaves, caution should be exercised in their use.
Long term use of cinnamon powder or its extract is undesirable and dangerous. To those who are allergic to cinnamon or its components (cinnamaldehyde, cinnamic acid and eugenol), cinnamon can cause contact dermatitis. Cinnamon bark and leaf oils are allergenic and irritant and should not be consumed; they should be stored out of reach of children. Taking cinnamon during pregnancy in small doses may be harmless, but large doses should be avoided as it may cause irritation to the foetus. Cinnamon may cause vomiting. Allergic reactions of cinnamon oil include swollen lips and tongue, itching, burning sensation, blistering of oral mucosa and urticaria. When used in toothpaste and mouth washes, it may cause sensitization of the mucosal membrane; ointments containing cinnamon should be used with caution. A toxicity rating of 3 (moderately toxic) has been given, and a probable lethal oral dose for humans is around 0.5-5 g/kg body weight. Cinnamon powder and its contents may reduce the activity of the tetracycline group of antibiotics.
Principal sources: Ravindran (2017)
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of C. verum include its susceptibility to injury by fire and its potential to become an aggressive colonizer, e.g. in the Seychelles (Fleischmann, 1997).
Production and Trade
Sri Lanka produces, mainly as quills, some of the best quality cinnamon bark ('Ceylon cinnamon'), which is reflected in its higher producer price (7570 US$/t in 2014) compared with that from other producers (e.g. 1008 US$/t for Vietnam).
According to the FAO, world production of cinnamon has been increasing steadily, from 19,912 t in 1961, to 67,276 t in 1990 to 201,045 t in 2009, and has since levelled off at around 200,000 t. The period 1961-2013 saw an overall increase in world production of 5.3%, with increases of 6.24% recorded for Indonesia, but much lower increases for other traditional producers such as Sri Lanka (1.7%). The Seychelles, another traditional producer, saw a decline (-6.5%).
In 2013, the principal producers were Indonesia (89,500 t), China (69,500 t), Vietnam (22,000 t), Sri Lanka (15,865 t) and Madagascar (2400 t). Highest yields per ha were obtained from Madagascar (1778 kg/ha) and China (1695 kg/ha). The best-quality cinnamon is still produced in Sri Lanka.
Most cinnamon leaf oil also originates from these countries, whereas cinnamon bark oil and oleoresin are mainly prepared in the importing countries. From 1987 to 1992, Sri Lanka annually exported less than 3 t of bark oil, and about 115 t of leaf oil. The USA and western Europe are the main markets for these oils. Cinnamon bark oil is very expensive, reflecting the high raw material cost. Cinnamon leaf oil is much cheaper, but still more expensive than clove leaf oil, an alternative source of eugenol.
See FAOSTAT for current production data.
Prospects
The demand for the spice cinnamon (and cassia) has always been satisfactory, and the prospects are still promising as the competition from synthetic alternatives does not noticeably affect the trade. With its medicinal and aromatic properties, cinnamon is increasingly finding an important place in both local and international markets (Andaya et al., 2014). Reports indicate prospects as a food additive, material and medicinal (PROTA, 2023). Consumption is likely to be mainly a function of population growth.
The prospects for the essential oils seem to be less bright, as there are many alternatives, although there are potential applications in food preservation and burgeoning research in this area. For example, research has shown the ability of cinnamon essential oil to inhibit the growth of bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria sp., Escherichia coli and Salmonella sp. that contaminate food and cause Foodborne Diseases (FBD) (Almeida et al., 2023). Such anti-microbial properties demonstrate cinnamon’s potential as an alternative to the use of chemical preservatives in foods. Another study showed positive effects and high potential for use commercially of using active film packaging based on bio-nanocomposite TiO2 and cinnamon essential oil on the shelf life, quality and safety of cheese (Sharma et al., 2023).
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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