Falcataria moluccana (batai wood)
Datasheet Types: Invasive species, Tree, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Falcataria moluccana covers Identity, Overview, Associated Diseases, Pests or Pathogens, Distribution, Dispersal, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Management, Genetics and Breeding, Economics, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Falcataria moluccana (Miq.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes
- Preferred Common Name
- batai wood
- Other Scientific Names
- Adenanthera falcata L.
- Adenanthera falcatoria L.
- Albizia eymae Fosberg
- Albizia falcata (L.) Backer
- Albizia falcata auct.
- Albizia falcataria (L.) Fosberg
- Albizia falcatoria (L.) Fosberg
- Albizia fulva C.T. White & Francis
- Albizia fulva Lane-Poole
- Albizia moluccana Miq.
- Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) I.C. Nielsen
- Paraserianthes falcataria subsp. falcataria (L.) I.C.Nielsen
- Paraserianthes falcataria subsp. fulva (Lane-Poole) I.C.Nielsen
- International Common Names
- EnglishalbiziabataibataiwoodIndonesian albiziakerosene plantmolucaMolucca albiziaMoluccan albiziaMoluccan sauparaserianthespeacock plumewhite albiziawhite monkeypod
- Spanishalbizia
- Frenchalbiziafalcata
- Chinesenan yang ying
- Local Common Names
- puahwhite albizia
- Bangladeshkoroimalacarma
- Cook Islands'arapitia
- Cubaalbizia
- Indonesiaalbesia-woodbae (Papua)bai (Papua)belalujeungjingjeungjing, sengonmaraparasianterare (Maluku)seka (Maluku)selawaku merah (Maluku)selawoku (Maluku)sengonsengon laut (Java)sika (Java)sika (Maluku)sika bot (Maluku)sikas (Maluku)tawa sela (Maluku)tedehu pute (Sulawesi)wahogon (Papua)wai (Papua)wikkie (Papua)
- Malaysiabataibataiwookayu machis (Sarawak)Molucca albiziaMoluccan sau
- Palauukall ra ngebard
- PhilippinesfalcateMollucan sau
- Portugalalbíziabataímaraparasiante
- Samoatamaligitamaligi pa'epa'etamaligi palagi
- USApeacock's plume (Hawaii)
Pictures
Habit
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Habit. Haiku, Maui, Hawaii. June 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Treetops. Haiku, Maui, Hawaii. June 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Habit. Waiehu, Maui, Hawaii. July 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Habit. Haiku, Maui, Hawaii. June 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Flowers and leaves
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Flowers and leaves. Ulumalu Haiku, Maui, Hawaii. June 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Flowers and leaves
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Flowers and leaves. Ulumalu Haiku, Maui, Hawaii. June 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Immature seedpods
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Immature seedpods. Waiehu, Maui, Hawaii. July 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Mature seedpods
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Mature seedpods and leaves. Waihee, Maui, Hawaii. September 2016.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Seedpods
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Seedpods on ground. Peahi reservoir Haiku, Maui, Hawaii. December 2006.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Foliage
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Foliage. Ulumalu, Maui, Hawaii. April 2005.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Young trees
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Young trees in drainage ditch. Waiehu, Maui, Hawaii. February 2007.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Trees. Haiku, Maui, Hawaii. June 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Habit. Haiku, Maui, Hawaii. June 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Bark and trunk
Falcataria moluccana (batai wood); Bark and trunk. Haiku, Maui, Hawaii. June 2009.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Line artwork
1. tree habit\n2. flowering twig with part of leaf\n3. flower\n4. pod
©PROSEA Foundation
Overview
Importance
Falcataria moluccana is one of the fastest growing multipurpose tree species and coupled with other positive attributes, it is a suitable species for plantation programmes and agroforestry applications in the humid tropics. It has many uses but it is commonly planted as an ornamental and shade tree. Other uses of the species being tested include alley farming, intercropping in forest plantations and reforestation.
Summary of Invasiveness
Falcataria moluccana is a large, nitrogen-fixing tree which has been widely introduced throughout the tropics as a very fast-growing plantation tree (7 m in the first year), for shade and also as an ornamental. Currently widely cultivated and exploited, it has escaped and become invasive especially in natural lowland humid forests on Pacific and also Indian Ocean islands, where it alters ecosystem function through nitrogen fixation and eliminates native species. This tendency could also occur in other countries where it is present but not yet widespread, such as tropical America and Africa, and the dangers of possible invasion should be highlighted prior to making any further introductions. This species has the potential to establish naturally in abandoned fields and disturbed areas as well as in forests wherever it has been intentionally introduced. It produces abundant seeds and rapidly spreads in humid areas at low elevations (less than 300 m).
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Falcataria moluccana has undergone considerable changes in its nomenclature over the years; it was previously placed in the genus Paraserianthes. Three subspecies are recognized: subsp. falcataria (L.) I.C.Nielsen occurs in the Moluccas (Maluku Islands) and New Guinea (Faridah Hanum and van der Maesen, 1997), subsp. fulva (Lane-Poole) I.C.Nielsen in the central mountains of New Guinea (Faridah Hanum and Maesen, 1997; ILDIS, 2009), and subsp. solomonensis in the Solomon Islands (Nielsen et al., 1984; Faridah Hanum and Maesen, 1997).
The genus name is derived from ‘falcata’, meaning ‘curved like a sickle’ a reference to the shape of the leaflets, while the species name alludes to its occurrence, from the Moluccas (Maluku Islands). It should not be mistaken for Aleurites moluccanus, sometimes incorrectly known as A. moluccana, which is a different distinct species.
Plant Type
Perennial
Seed / spore propagated
Broadleaved
Tree
Woody
Description
The following description is from Wagner et al. (1999) and Dixon et al. (2013):
Falcataria moluccana is a medium to fairly large-sized tree up to 40 m high with a small buttress. The bole is branchless up to 20 m and up to 100 cm or more in girth and in dense stands is generally straight and cylindrical. When grown in the open, trees form a large canopy, which is umbrella shaped. In plantations of 1000-2000 trees/ha the crowns become narrow. The bark is light grey with warts, inner bark smooth and pink though young parts may be densely reddish brown tomentose or puberulent. Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound and 20-40 cm long with 4-(10-12)-15 pairs of pinnae, each pinnae 5-10 cm long containing 8-(15-20)-25 falcate leaflets 10-20 mm long and 3-6 mm wide, pubescent, dull green above, paler below, obliquely elliptic, falcate, midrib strongly excentric near one of the margins. Leaves each have a large nectary below the lowermost pair of pinnae and smaller ones between or below most pairs of pinnae. Flowers are large, branched, bell-shaped, in paniculate axillary racemes ca 20 cm in diameter, often with two serial branches from one bract scar; calyx 1-1.5 mm long, silky pubescent, the teeth 0.5 mm long. The flowers are bisexual, regular and 5-merous. The corolla is creamy-white to greenish-white and sericeous 3-4.5 mm long (excl. stamens); stamens 10-17 mm long, numerous and extend beyond the corolla. Pods are narrow and flat, densely pubescent or glabrous, green turning brown and splitting on maturity, 10-13 cm long and 1.5-2.5 cm wide, winged along ventral suture with many (ca. 20) transversely arranged, ellipsoid, flat dark brown seeds, 5-7 mm long, 2.5-3.5 mm wide.
Distribution
Falcataria moluccana is native to parts of Indonesia (Moluccas (Maluku Islands) and Irian Jaya), Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands according to USDA-ARS (2009); ILDIS (2009) however, gives a wider native range, encompassing Java and Sumatra (Indonesia) and Bougainville Island (Papua New Guinea). This species has been widely planted throughout the world for reforestation and it can now be found naturalized in Asia, Africa, Cuba and on several islands in the Pacific Ocean (see Distribution Table for details).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
In the humid tropics, F. moluccana has been widely planted for fuelwood and charcoal, for alley farming and intercropping in forest plantations, and as an ornamental tree. This species was first introduced to Samoa as early as the 1830s and was thought to have spread to Tutuila Island in the early 1900s. By the 1980s, it was noted as locally common within the National Park of American Samoa and by 2000 approximately 35% of Tutuila Island was infested with F. moluccana (Hughes et al., 2012).
In Palau, F. moluccana was introduced during the Japanese occupation in the early 1900s to provide shade for agricultural plantations. In Hawaii, it was introduced in 1917 by Joseph Rock from North Borneo and Java as an ornamental and for reforestation (Little and Skolmen, 1989; Wagner et al., 1999). About 138,000 trees were planted for reforestation between 1910 and 1960 (Skolmen, 1960) which included aerial sowing of seeds (Smith, 1998) and the species has since naturalized (Motooka et al., 2003).
In French Polynesia, 3300 ha of F. moluccana and Casuarina equisetifolia were planted by the Forest Service between 1960 and 1970 on almost all high islands, to reforest areas subject to soil erosion or which had been destroyed by bushfires. F. moluccana was also used as a windbreak and shade tree in coffee plantations, but quickly naturalized and became invasive in natural forests (Meyer, 2007).
Falcataria moluccana is likely to be present in more countries than included in the Distribution Table, especially in tropical Africa and the Americas.
Risk of Introduction
A risk assessment of F. moluccana for the Pacific (PIER, 2014) gave it a high score of 8. It was included in a decree in French Polynesia in 2006 as one of 35 invasive plants declared to be ‘species that threaten biodiversity’, subject to a ban on new imports, propagation and planting, and prohibition of transfer from one island to another of any whole plant, fragment of plant, cutting, fruit or seed (Meyer, 2007). Being valued as a shade tree, for plantation forestry and as an ornamental, it is likely to be further introduced and could prove to be a risk in many other tropical countries where it is not yet recorded as present, especially in tropical America and Africa.
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal
Falcataria moluccana spreads from abundant seeds contained in lightweight pods that are dispersed by the wind (Little and Skolmen, 1989).
Intentional Introduction
Humans have been the principal disseminators of F. moluccana. It was originally dispersed long distances intentionally for forestry, landscaping or other purposes, before spreading naturally to nearby forests, pastures and open areas.
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Disturbance (pathway cause) | Yes | |||
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Spread naturally to nearby forests, pastures and open areas | Yes | ||
| Forestry (pathway cause) | Wood used in timber trade | Yes | Yes | |
| Landscape improvement (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Ornamental purposes (pathway cause) | Yes | Yes |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
A related species that was widely planted in Hawaii from 1910-1960 is Paraserianthes lophantha subsp. montana, and other species planted in lesser numbers include Albizia acle, A. caribaea [A. niopoides], A. chinensis, A. katangensis, A. lebbekoides, A. procera, A. saponaria and A. zygia (Skolmen, 1960). P. lophantha has also naturalized in Hawaii (Oppenheimer and Bartlett, 2002) and is invasive in New Zealand (Haley, 1997).
Habitat
Falcataria moluccana grows from sea level to elevations of 2300 m but is most common in mesic, lowland areas. It is commonly found in secondary forests, primary deciduous forests and mountain forests, and also in planted forests, disturbed areas, abandoned farms, montane forests, grassy plains, river flood terraces and along roadsides near the sea. The abundance of growth of wildings in the forest only occurs when the soil is cleared from the undergrowth and the canopy opened (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993). In Hawaii, it has established naturally in abandoned sugarcane fields as well as in forests wherever there are seed trees (Little and Skolmen, 1989); it is also spreading on pasture land (Starr et al., 2003).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Terrestrial | Disturbed areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Terrestrial | Cultivated / agricultural land | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed grasslands (grazing systems) | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Urban / peri-urban areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for F. moluccana is 2n = 26 (Faridah Hanum and Maesen, 1997). Yan et al. (2011) discuss the criteria for selecting superior trees in a study of the species in Guangdong, China.
Reproductive Biology
Falcataria moluccana reproduces by numerous wind-dispersed seeds (Little and Skolmen, 1989). It may flower when trees are about 3 years old.
Physiology and Phenology
Flowering and fruiting seasons of F. moluccana depend on geographical location. Two flowering periods per year have been observed in Indonesia and Malaysia (Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia). Flowers are probably pollinated by insects. Ripe pods appear approximately 2 months after flowering (Faridah Hanum and Maesen, 1997).
It is a strongly light demanding species which regenerates naturally when the soil is exposed to sunlight and naturally colonizes forest clearings. It is a nitrogen-fixing species, and coppices when cut.
Associations
The growth of young F. moluccana trees is promoted by the inoculation of the mycorrhizal fungi Gigaspora margarita and Glomus fasciculatum [Rhizophagus fasciculatus] in combination with Rhizobium in phosphorus-deficient soils (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993). In natural stands in Papua, F. moluccana is associated with Agathis labillardieri, Celtis spp., Diospyros spp., Pterocarpus indicus, Terminalia spp. and Toona sureni (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993).
Environmental Requirements
Falcataria moluccana is adapted to humid to monsoon climates. It grows from sea level up to 2300 m above sea level with an annual rainfall of 2000-4000 mm, a temperature of 22° to 34°C and a dry season of less than 2 months. The optimal temperature range is 22° to 29°C with a minimum of 22° to 24°C and maximum of 30° to 34°C (Garcia, 1989; Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993). A modified description of climatic requirements (see climatic data table of this data sheet) was prepared by CSIRO (Booth and Jovanovic, 2000).
Falcataria moluccana thrives on comparatively poor soils as long as they are well drained; survival is poor on seasonally waterlogged sites (Hocking and Islam, 1995). It grows on both acidic and alkaline soils although it does better on alkaline soils (Ruskin, 1983). The most important indicator of site quality for F. moluccana is the depth of topsoil; it grows best in 19-26 cm of well drained topsoil with 3-8% organic matter and exchangeable potassium of 0.36 meq/100 g soil (Garcia, 1989). It is able to grow on poor soils due to its nitrogen-fixing roots. In Hawaii, it often establishes on young lava flows with minimal soil development (Little and Skolmen, 1989).
Vegetation Types
deciduous forests
mountain forests
secondary forests
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 30 | 10 | 0 | 2300 |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute minimum temperature | 5 | |
| Mean annual temperature | 22 | 29 |
| Mean maximum temperature of hottest month | 30 | 34 |
| Mean minimum temperature of coldest month | 20 | 24 |
Rainfall
| Parameter | Lower limit | Upper limit | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dry season duration | 0 | 2 | number of consecutive months with <40 mm rainfall |
| Mean annual rainfall | 2000 | 4000 | mm; lower/upper limits |
Rainfall Regime
Summer
Bimodal
Uniform
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > Medium
Soil reaction > Acid
Soil reaction > Neutral
Soil reaction > Alkaline
Soil drainage > Free
Special soil tolerances > Infertile
Soil Types
acid soils
alkaline soils
Notes on Pests
Seedlings in nurseries are prone to damping-off caused by fungi Sclerotium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Phytophthora and Pythium. Sterilization of the soil and applying fungicides to the seeds and soil may control the disease. Gall rust caused by the fungus Uromycladium tepperianum has become a serious disease of F. moluccana plantations in some countries since the 1990s. Infection causes a decrease in relative growth rate at all stages of tree development and is promoted by high relative humidity (≥ 90%) and slow wind speed (≤ 80 km/h). Pruning, thinning and clear felling reduce disease incidence and severity. Other fungal diseases include pink canker caused by Corticium salmonicolor and red root caused by Ganoderma pseudoferreum.
Leaf-eating caterpillars and aphids are also occasional problems to seedlings and trees in plantations but they can be controlled by insecticides. Stem borer Xystrocera festiva (longicorn beetle) and red borer Zeuzera coffea (cossid moth) are amongst other pests found in plantations in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines (Natawiria, 1972-1973). Coptotermes curvignathus (rubber termite), Euwallacea fornicatus (tea shot-hole borer), Helicotylenchus dihystera (common spiral nematode), Homona coffearia (tea tortrix), Hypomeces squamosus (green weevil), Indarbela quadrinotata (bark eating caterpillar), Rastrococcus iceryoides (mango mealy bug), Xylosandrus morigerus (brown twig beetle) and Xyleborus similis have also been recorded as pests of F. moluccana.
Rapid extraction, conversion and seasoning of harvested wood is crucial to prevent infection by fungi, insect attack and sap-stain attack.
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
Falcataria moluccana seedlings in nurseries are prone to damping-off caused by species of Sclerotium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Phytophthora and Pythium (Nair and Sumardi, 2000). Other fungal diseases include pink canker caused by Corticium salmonicolor [Phanerochaete salmonicolor] and red root rot caused by Ganoderma pseudoferreum [Ganoderma philippii]. Pellicularia salmonicolor [Phanerochaete salmonicolor] and Pellicularia filamentosa [Thanatephorus cucumeris] were observed on F. moluccana in Assam, India (Agnihothrudu, 1962).
Leaf-eating caterpillars and aphids are also occasional problems for seedlings and trees in plantations. The stem borer Xystrocera festiva (longicorn beetle) and red borer Zeuzera coffea (cossid moth) are amongst the pests found in F. moluccana plantations in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines (Natawiria, 1972-1973; FAO, 2007). Brief descriptions of the damage caused by the main insect pests and diseases are available from Nair and Sumardi (2000). See the Natural Enemies table for a complete list of pests recorded on F. moluccana.
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Achatina fulica (giant African land snail) | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
| Coptotermes curvignathus (rubber termite) | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
| Eurema blanda (three-spot grass yellow butterfly) | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
| Euwallacea fornicatus (polyphagous shot-hole borer) | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
| Fusarium spp. | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific | |||
| Ganoderma philippii (red root rot) | Pathogen | Plants|Roots | not specific | |||
| Helicotylenchus dihystera (common spiral nematode) | Parasite | Plants|Roots | not specific | |||
| Homona coffearia (tea tortrix) | Herbivore | Plants|Stems Plants|Leaves Plants|Fruits/pods | not specific | |||
| Hypomeces squamosus (green weevil) | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
| Indarbela quadrinotata (bark eating caterpillar) | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
| Phanerochaete salmonicolor | Pathogen | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
| Phythophthora spp. | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific | |||
| Pythium spp. | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific | |||
| Rastrococcus iceryoides (mango mealy bug) | Herbivore | Plants|Growing point Plants|Leaves Plants|Inflorescence Plants|Fruits/pods | not specific | |||
| Rhizoctonia spp. | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific | |||
| Sclerotium spp. | Pathogen | Plants|Seedlings | not specific | |||
| Thanatephorus cucumeris (many names, depending on host) | Pathogen | Plants|Stems Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
| Uromycladium tepperianum | Pathogen | Plants|Whole plant | not specific | |||
| Xyleborus similis | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
| Xylosandrus morigerus (brown twig beetle) | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
| Xystrocera festiva (albizzia borer) | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific | |||
| Zeuzera coffeae (coffee carpenter) | Herbivore | Plants|Stems | not specific |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Cultural/amenity | Positive |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
Impact: Environmental
Impact on Habitats
Falcataria moluccana profoundly transforms invaded forests by dramatically increasing inputs of nitrogen, facilitating invasion by other weeds while simultaneously suppressing native species (Hughes et al., 2013). The high, broad canopy shades-out native plants and suppresses the recruitment and establishment of seedlings of native species. Additionally, as a nitrogen-fixing species, it dramatically alters forest structure and litter inputs in forests it invades and may stimulate the growth of non-native plants better adapted to respond to increased soil nitrogen than native species (Motooka et al., 2003).
In Hawaii, it was found that F. moluccana leaf litter created an invertebrate community that differs greatly from that found in leaf litter from the native tree Metrosideros polymorpha, increasing the abundance of non-native fragmenters (Amphipoda and Isopoda) by 400% and increasing non-native predaceous ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) by 200%, thus altering the litter-based food chain (Tuttle et al., 2009). These authors also found that this invasive nitrogen-fixing tree had a greater influence on litter invertebrate community abundance and composition than predation by the invasive terrestrial frog, Eleutherodactylus coqui.
In wet lowland forests of Hawaii, compositional changes following invasion of F. moluccana were due both to increases in alien species, particularly Psidium cattleianum, and decreases in native species, particularly Metrosideros polymorpha (Hughes and Denslow, 2005). These findings provide a clear example of how invasive tree species, by modifying the function and structure of the ecosystems that they invade, can facilitate invasion by additional alien species and eliminate dominant native species. Given the rarity and limited extent of the remaining native-dominated wet lowland forests in Hawaii, and the degree to which invasion of F. moluccana alters them, it is expected that the continued existence of these unique ecosystems will be determined, in large part, by the spread of this invasive species.
In Hawaii, fungal:bacterial ratios declined dramatically with invasion of F. moluccana, suggesting that invasion alters the composition and function of below ground soil communities in addition to forest structure and biogeochemistry, with a shift toward phosphorus limitation and rapid microbial processing of litterfall C and N following invasion (Allison et al., 2006).
On the very nutrient-poor soils of the granitic Seychelles, some pioneer invasive species produce more decomposable litter and therefore have the potential to alter rates of nutrient cycling. However, the small differences in soil fertility beneath native trees and the invasive F. moluccana and Cinnamomum verum suggest that impacts of these invasive species on nutrient cycling are more complex and less predictable in nutrient-poor ecosystems, where several nutrients may be co-limiting, and native and alien species coexist (Kueffer et al., 2008).
Threatened Species
| Threatened species | Where threatened | Mechanisms | References | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Metrosideros polymorpha | Hawaii |
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Has high genetic variability
Impact outcomes
Altered trophic level
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Increases vulnerability to invasions
Modification of nutrient regime
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of endangered species
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Interaction with other invasive species
Rapid growth
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult/costly to control
Uses
Economic Value
Falcataria moluccana is one of the fastest growing multipurpose tree species, and coupled with other positive attributes. It is a suitable species for plantation programmes and agroforestry in the humid tropics. It has many uses but it is commonly planted as an ornamental and shade tree. This species is also used in alley farming, intercropping in forest plantations and reforestation. The wood is soft, but not durable. The heartwood is easy to work, and also suitable for pulping, paper and matchsticks, besides being used for general utility purposes such as lightweight packing materials, lightweight construction, panelling, cabinets and furniture. The wood is also an important source of lightweight veneer and plywood and is suitable for the production of low and medium density particleboard, hardboard, wood wool board and blackboard. Due to the excellent pulping characteristics of the wood, it is widely used to supply pulp for the manufacturing of paper (Peh and Khoo, 1984). In some countries, this species is an important source of firewood, and in Hawaii has been used for making canoes (Starr et al., 2003).
Falcataria moluccana can reach 7 m in height in 1 year, 15 m in 3 years and 30 m in 10 years. Volume wood yields are on average 39 m3/ha/year on a 10-year rotation, and may reach 50 m3/ha/year on better soils. Timber production stands can be thinned at age 4-5 years to a density of 250 stems/ha and after 10 years to 150 stems/ha. Its rapid growth, ability to grow on a variety of soils, favourable silvicultural characteristics and quality of wood for the panel and plywood industries has made F. moluccana one of the tree species preferred for industrial forest plantations in Indonesia (Krisnawati et al., 2011). It plays an important role in both commercial and traditional farming systems on several sites in Indonesia.
The leaves of F. moluccana are used as feed for chicken and goats, and as green manure. The bark yields ‘kino’ which has tanning properties and is also sometimes used as soap. The pods are used as a substitute for Parkia speciosa and are edible (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993). Because of its fast growth, and claim to be the fastest growing species ever, F. moluccana is often used in reforestation and afforestation of denuded lands, for firewood and charcoal production, and as an ornamental tree. Pure stands can give good protective cover in preventing erosion on slopes. The ability to coppice fairly well makes it suitable for pulpwood production. F. moluccana is also commonly used in agroforestry systems throughout its range.
Environmental Services
The narrow crown of F. moluccana provides partial shade to tea, cacao and coffee. However, the importance of this species as a shade tree for these crops is rather limited, as solitary trees are prone to wind damage. When planted in rows they are suitable as a windbreak for bananas (Garcia, 1989), but F. moluccana is easily damaged by wind and is therefore not suitable for planting in areas prone to strong winds, and it is also not suitable for steep slopes (Ruskin, 1983).
Falcataria moluccana has been recommended for use as a biofuel, to generate electricity on the Hawaiian Islands (Chimera et al., 2010).
Uses List
Environmental > Agroforestry
Environmental > Amenity
Environmental > Land reclamation
Environmental > Landscape improvement
Environmental > Revegetation
Environmental > Shade and shelter
Environmental > Soil improvement
Environmental > Windbreak
Materials > Bark products
Materials > Green manure
Materials > Tanstuffs
Materials > Wood/timber
Fuels > Charcoal
Fuels > Fuelwood
Human food and beverage > Seeds
Animal feed, fodder, forage > Fodder/animal feed
Ornamental > Garden plant
Wood Products
Sawn or hewn building timbers > Carpentry/joinery (exterior/interior)
Sawn or hewn building timbers > For light construction
Containers > Crates
Containers > Pallets
Woodware > Industrial and domestic woodware
Woodware > Matches
Woodware > Musical instruments
Woodware > Toys
Woodware > Turnery
Woodware > Wood carvings
Wood-based materials > Composite boards
Wood-based materials > Fibreboard
Wood-based materials > Gypsum board
Wood-based materials > Hardboard
Wood-based materials > Laminated veneer lumber
Wood-based materials > Laminated wood
Wood-based materials > Medium density fibreboard
Wood-based materials > Particleboard
Wood-based materials > Plywood
Wood-based materials > Wood cement
Pulp > long-fibre pulp
Other > Boats
Other > Charcoal
Other > Furniture
Other > Veneers
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Cultural Control and Sanitary Measures
Falcataria moluccana was not browsed in trials in Cuba, and thus the use of livestock for control is not an option (Toral and Simón, 2001).
Physical/Mechanical Control
Seedlings can be hand pulled, and larger F. moluccana trees are also reportedly susceptible to being killed by root damage by heavy equipment (Motooka et al., 2003). Trees can be removed by hand or using saws, and stumps treated with a triclopyr-based herbicide to prevent resprouting.
Chemical Control
Falcataria moluccana is very susceptible to hormone-type herbicides, being severely injured by cut-surface application of 2,4-D and by glyphosate, and killed outright by dicamba and triclopyr. It is susceptible to basal bark or cut stumps applications of triclopyr (Motooka et al., 2003). In the case of the related Paraserianthes lophantha subsp. montana in New Zealand, Starr et al. (2003) reports that trees can be controlled by either a cut stump and herbicide method, or, as Haley (1997) reports that felling trees may open up new space and light gaps for more seedlings to establish, frilling is the preferred method. This involves girdling or ring-barking 20 cm from the ground and painting the exposed area immediately with an herbicide; no cost is associated with the removal of material.
Other Methods
A project on the Hawaiian island of Kauai proposes the use of the biomass of F. moluccana to generate electricity, with a view to reducing the overall amount of the species on the island and positively benefit the community (Chimera et al., 2010).
Silviculture Characteristics
Falcataria moluccana is a strongly light demanding species which regenerates naturally when the soil is exposed to sunlight. The abundance of growth of wildings in the forest only occurs when the soil is cleared from the undergrowth and the canopy opened (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993). The trees coppice fairly well.
Silviculture Characteristics
Ability to > fix nitrogen
Ability to > regenerate rapidly
Ability to > coppice
Silviculture Practice
Seeds are usually collected by cutting branches bearing matured brown pods. As germination of untreated seeds is irregular and may be delayed up to 4 weeks after sowing, seeds can be treated by soaking in boiling water for 1-3 min or immersing in concentrated sulfuric acid for 10 min and subsequent washing and soaking in water for 18 h. For storage, seeds are air dried for 24 h and packed in polyethylene bags, then stored at 4-8°C and the germination rate is 70-90% after 18 months. Sowing is usually by broadcasting, and seeds are then gently pressed into the soil and covered with about 1.5 cm of fine sand. The soil in seed-beds should be well-drained and loosened, surface mulched and excessive shading avoided.
Transplanting of the seedlings to the field can be carried out at 2-2.5 months when the seedlings are about 20-25 cm high, and have developed a good fibrous root system and woody stem. Container plants are however transplanted in the field at 4-5 months old. The seedlings are planted in the field with a spacing of 2m x 2m to 4m x 4m. Only one complete and three spot weedings in the field are required in the first year as initial growth is very rapid (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993 ). Seed tissue of F. moluccana has been successfully used for propogation by tissue culture in the Philippines (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993).
Silviculture Practice
Seed storage > recalcitrant
Vegetative propagation by > tissue culture
Stand establishment using > direct sowing
Stand establishment using > wildings
Management
Falcataria moluccana can reach 7 m in height in 1 year, 15 m in 3 years and 30 m in 10 years. Volume wood yields are on average 39 cubic metres/ha/year on a 10-year rotation, and may reach 50 cubic metres/ha/year on better soils. Timber production stands can be thinned at age 4-5 years to a density of 250 stems/ha and after 10 years to 150 stems/ha.
Pruning is required as there is a tendency for stems to fork. Trees grown for timber have a harvest cycle of 12-15 years while for pulp production the cutting cycle is approximately 8 years. In agroforestry systems with annual crops in the first year and grazing animals in subsequent years, the cutting cycle for F. moluccana is 10-15 years. F. moluccana plantations must be kept weed-free in the first few years and fertilizers may be applied to improve the yield. A rate of 12.5 kg/ha of phosphorus was found satisfactory (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993 ).
Genetic Resources and Breeding
The genetic resources of F. moluccana are quite comprehensive as it is planted on a large scale throughout the tropics. Breeding programmes have yet to be conducted to produce superior trees with long, straight boles, without forking and with increased resistant to pests and diseases.
Disadvantages
Falcataria moluccana is easily damaged by wind and is therefore not suitable to be planted in areas prone to strong winds. It is also not suitable for steep slopes as it can cause bad soil erosion (Ruskin, 1983).
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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