Salvinia auriculata (giant salvinia)
Datasheet Types: Pest, Crop, Invasive species, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Salvinia auriculata covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Salvinia auriculata Aubl.
- Preferred Common Name
- giant salvinia
- Other Scientific Names
- Salvinia hispida Kunth.
- Salvinia rotundifolia Willd.
- International Common Names
- EnglishAfrican payalbutterfly ferneared watermossroundleaf salviniawater fern
- Spanishacordeónhelecho de aguahelecho mariposaoreja de aguaoreja de elefanteoreja de ratón
- Portuguesemurure-carrapatinhosamambaia-aquatica
- Local Common Names
- Germanyrundblaettriger schwimmfarn
- EPPO code
- SAVAU (Salvinia auriculata)
Pictures
Habit
Typical infestation of S. auriculata.
©Kurt G. Kissmann
Habit
Close-up of S. auriculata plants.
©Kurt G. Kissmann
Plant parts
S. auriculata; plant parts from the auriculata complex: (a) plant with fronds, pending feathered-strings and axis with sporocarps; (b) "eggbeater" structures; (c) sporocarps with macro and micro-sporangia.
©Kurt G. Kissmann
Papilla
Papilla and dividing hairs of S. rotundifolia out of the auriculata complex.
©Kurt G. Kissmann
Summary of Invasiveness
Salvinia auriculata is a floating aquatic fern that is often grown as an aquatic ornamental, but has escaped cultivation and become invasive in many regions worldwide. It is highly competitive and capable of extremely fast growth; high leaf and branch densities allow it to form continuous and large mats on the waters surface. It exhibits density-dependent morphological plasticity that increases its competitive potential. Under conditions of nutrient enrichment, it can form dense mats (>50 cm thick) that shade submersed aquatic plant species, impact fisheries and negatively affect recreational activities and transportation. Dense colonies can completely outcompete native flora, decrease biodiversity and contribute to habitat degradation. The species is listed as invasive in Chile, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guyana, Taiwan, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The fern species within the Order Salviniales are the only group of plants that produce truly dimorphic spores: a condition known as heterospory. All other ferns are homosporous (Smith et al., 2006). The heterosporous ferns are monophyletic and assigned to two families, Marsileaceae and Salviniaceae (Nagalingum et al., 2006; Smith et al., 2006). Members of Salviniaceae are floating aquatic ferns and are grouped into two genera, Azolla and Salvinia. The genus Salvinia comprises 12 species all of which are morphologically quite similar. Characters such as soral arrangement, leaf hair structure and leaf shape and venation have been used to separate species within Salvinia (Jacono et al., 2001; Nagalingum et al., 2006; 2008).
Within the genus Salvinia, a group of four closely related species is often referred to as the Salvinia auriculata complex, Salvinia complex or giant salvinia complex. The four species assigned to this complex are: Salvinia auriculata Aublet., Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitchel, Salvinia herzogii de la Sota and Salvinia biloba Raddi (Forno et al., 1983; Richerson and Jacono, 2005; Nagalingum et al., 2008). All these species are native to South America, making this region the most diverse for Salvinia. Even when these four species are taxonomically well defined with stable names, they are morphologically quite similar and sterile specimens are extremely difficult to distinguish. Consequently, they are often confused with one another and often misidentified (Moran, 1995; Miranda and Schwartsburd, 2016). This datasheet is focused on S. auriculata and the name used here refers to the 'species' not the 'complex'.
Plant Type
Aquatic
Perennial
Vegetatively propagated
Description
The following description is adapted from Stolze (1983) and Moran (1995):
Salvinia auriculata is a small, free-floating fern that exhibits vegetative growth via ramets and produces stems bearing three densely villous leaves.
Rhizome with stele U-shaped in cross section; floating leaves drying green to brown, oblong-elliptic to nearly circular, apex obtuse or retuse, base cordate or subcordate, larger ones 1.5-2.5 cm long, under surface sparsely to moderately provided with minute, castaneous, septate trichomes, upper surface densely provided with short to greatly elongated papillae, these arranged in rows paralleling the main lateral veins and each of them developing at the apex a group of 4 trichomes which are all joined at their ends; submerged leaves (2-) 3-10 cm long; sporocarps 1.5-2.5 mm in diameter.
Distribution
Salvinia auriculata is native to South and Central America. It has been introduced and can be found naturalized in the West Indies, Taiwan, Belgium, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Chile. In Guyana and Argentina, the status of this species is uncertain and is listed as both native and introduced (Caudales et al., 2000; Caluff and Fiallo, 2008; Fuentes et al., 2013; GRIIS, 2018; USDA-ARS, 2018).
It is listed as invasive in Chile, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guyana, Taiwan, Zambia and Zimbabwe (Caluff and Fiallo, 2008; Chen et al., 2008; Mir, 2012; Fuentes et al., 2013; CIASNET, 2018; Hyde et al., 2018).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
The species within the Salvinia complex are closely related and quite difficult to distinguish. Consequently, the names of the different species are frequently misapplied and the history of spread beyond their native ranges is difficult to track and characterize with certainty. For example, in Sri Lanka specimens collected before 1973 have been misidentified as Salvinia auriculata but this species is not present in Sri Lanka (IAS, 2018). Similarly, the name Salvinia auriculata has been reported for the United States but only Salvinia molesta has been introduced to the United States (where the entire complex is federally prohibited; USDA-NRCS, 2018).
In Africa, Salvinia auriculata has been known to exist on the Zambezi River since at least 1949, where it was collected near the Victoria Falls. There are no records of the specific time of introduction of this species to Africa. However, it has now become a pest in the Lake Kariva and the Zambezi River (Hattingh, 1961; Hyde et al., 2018).
In Chile, Salvinia auriculata was first reported in the wild in 1961 (Fuentes et al., 2013).
Introductions
| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Bangladesh | No | No | ||||||
| Taiwan | No | No | ||||||
Risk of Introduction
Salvinia auriculata is a free-floating species that can easily spread by water via hydrochory among hydrologically connected waterbodies. Its relatively small size makes it easily transportable by water currents as well as by animals. S. auriculata is extensively commercialized in the horticultural trade (e.g. Chen et al., 2008) and it is also available for purchase online. Since the species spreads not only clonally but also by spores, there is an additional danger that ship ballast water that contains spores can spread Salvinia internationally via freshwater waterways (ISSG, 2006).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal
Salvinia auriculata is a free floating fern that spreads sexually by spores and vegetatively by clonal growth and rhizome fragmentation. Spores and vegetative fragments are dispersed by watercourses and during floods. Spores are also dispersed by wind. It also spreads to new areas by the dumping of aquatic garden waste but may also be spread by animals, vehicles and boats.
Accidental Introduction
The discharge of ship ballast water contaminated with spores is likely a possible means of transmission of Salvinia auriculata. Additionally, since it is resistant to desiccation, it is easily transported on boating and other recreational equipment. It can also be spread as a contaminant in aquaculture trade (ISSG, 2009).
Intentional Introduction
Salvinia auriculata is commercialized as an aquarium plant and as an ornamental aquatic species (ISSG, 2006; USDA-ARS, 2018).
Pathway Causes
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aquaculture stock (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Clothing, footwear and possessions (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Floating vegetation and debris (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
| Land vehicles (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Livestock (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Machinery and equipment (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Ship ballast water and sediment (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Ship bilge water (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Ship structures above the water line (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Water (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Wind (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes |
Hosts/Species Affected
Salvinia auriculata is a highly competitive species with a high growth rate. Under conditions of nutrient enrichment, it can form dense mats (>50 cm thick) that shade submersed aquatic plant species and impact fisheries (Bini et al., 1999). Dense colonies can completely outcompete native flora, decrease biodiversity and contribute to habitat degradation (ISSG, 2006; UC-Davis, 2009).
It is a listed as weed of irrigated rice plantations (ISSG, 2006; UC-Davis, 2009).
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Within the Salvinia complex, the two species that have been listed as noxious invasive species are Salvinia auriculata and Salvinia molesta. These two species share the common and defining character of ‘egg-beater like’ hairs; the upper leaf surfaces are covered with papillae, each having four hairs that re-join at the tip in an egg-beater or rattle-like shape (Richerson and Jacono, 2005). The floating leaves of both are orbicular to ovate. However, the floating leaves of S. molesta are larger, potentially reaching 4 cm long and 5 cm wide at maturity and the stalk of submersed S. auriculata leaves are generally sessile to subsessile and divide two or three times and recurve (Richerson and Jacono, 2005).
Habitat
Salvinia auriculata is a free-floating, non-rooted macrophyte that prefers slow-moving and still waters. It can be found in a wide variety of aquatic habitats including lakes, reservoirs, ponds, rivers, marshes, ditches, streams and paddy fields (Moran, 1995; Caudales et al., 2000; Liogier and Martorell, 2000). It can tolerate some salinity, occasional frost and high levels of sedimentation (Cavenaghi et al., 2005; UC-Davis, 2009).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Freshwater | ||||
| Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Irrigation channels | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | |
| Freshwater | Lakes | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Lakes | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Lakes | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | |
| Freshwater | Reservoirs | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Reservoirs | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Reservoirs | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | |
| Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural | |
| Freshwater | Ponds | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Freshwater | Ponds | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Ponds | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for Salvinia auriculata is 2n = 54 (Schneller, 1981).
Reproductive Biology
Salvinia auriculata plants consist of ramets connected by rhizomes forming matted colonies. Each ramet is comprised of a node bearing two floating green leaves and one submerged leaf that functions as a root. The submerged leaf bears the spore-producing organs, which consist of a sori surrounded by a globose indusium (sporocarp). The sporocarps are resistant structures and their production occurs during the dry period, when clonal growth is unfavourable. During flood periods, asexual reproduction is favoured by formation of buds and by rhizome fragmentation. Both reproductive strategies allow this species to survive and colonize places with seasonal patterns, like temporary ponds that are subject to drought and flood periods (Coelho et al., 2005; Medeiros et al., 2017).
Under laboratory conditions, this species is capable of doubling its biomass approximately every 2-4 days (ISSG, 2006). This species in particular is capable of prolific generation of sori.
Physiology and Phenology
In Brazil, Salvinia auriculata produces sporocarps during the dry period and growth clonally during the rainy season (Coelho et al., 2005). Ramets can lie dormant in vegetation waiting for favourable growing conditions (ISSG, 2006). Abundant production of sori has been observed in temporary ponds that desiccate, indicating flexibility in the life history strategy that may convey tolerance of water level fluctuation and increased probability of survival (Coelho et al., 2005).
Associations
In Brazil, Salvinia auriculata can be found growing associated with water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) and Lemnaceae species (Bini et al., 1999). The species has also been reported to coexist with the South American spongeplant (Limnobium laevigatum) and Salvinia minima (Milne et al., 2007).
Environmental Requirements
Salvinia auriculata can grow in a wide variety of aquatic habitats but thrives in slow-moving, nutrient-rich, warm freshwater (Bini et al., 1999). It prefers tropical and subtropical areas with temperatures ranging from 20°C to 30°C. Growth is enhanced by enriched nutrient conditions and under suitable conditions it can quickly form dense and thick floating mats. Low growth rates have been observed when temperatures drop below 10°C. It is highly adaptable and can thrive in both shade and open sunny areas. It can also tolerate salinity conditions (Coelho et al., 2000; Medeiros et al., 2017).
Water samples taken from a reservoir dominated by S. auriculata contained an average of 3.867 mg/L nitrate, 0.706 mg/L ammonia, 1.372 mg/L nitrite and 159.979 mg/L phosphate. Sediments were highly fertile and contained 68.87 mg/dm3 phosphorus (Velini et al., 2005).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Preferred | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Preferred |
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
A brown spot fungus Simplicillium lanosoniveum was recently discovered in a home aquarium in Taiwan (Chen et al., 2008). The weevil species, Cyrtobagous salviniae and Cyrtobagous singularis have been reported causing infestations in the species within the Salvinia complex (Tipping and Center, 2005; UC-Davis, 2009).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cyrtobagous singularis | Herbivore | Whole plant | not specific | |||
| Cyrtobagous salviniae (salvinia weevil) | Herbivore | Whole plant | not specific | Salvinia molesta | ||
| Simplicillium lanosoniveum | Pathogen | Leaves | not specific |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Cultural/amenity | Positive and negative |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
| Human health | Positive and negative |
Impact: Economic
Salvinia auriculata can form dense floating mats that may cause numerous economic problems. Thick mats can impede recreational activities and navigation on lakes and waterways, increase flooding risk, impact water quality and clog waterways, water intakes and irrigation channels. It can also interfere with power generation and decrease the integrity of fisheries. It is also a weed of irrigated rice plantations (Bini et al., 1999; ISSG, 2009; USDA-ARS, 2018).
Impact: Environmental
Salvinia auriculata is an extremely fast growing fern and under suitable environmental conditions populations it is capable of doubling every 2-4 days (Jacono, 2005). In areas with nutrient enrichment, it can form dense floating mats, more than 50 cm thick. Mats can displace native species, reduce waterflow and lower the light and oxygen levels in the water with negative impacts on diversity and abundance of freshwater species, including fish, insects and aquatic plants (Bini et al., 1999; Coelho et al., 2000; ISSG, 2009; Medeiros et al., 2017; USDA-ARS, 2018).
Impact: Social
At high levels of growth, mats of Salvinia auriculata impedes navigation, tangles fishing line, interferes with recreational activities and reduces swimming access (Hobbs and Molina, 1983).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Tolerant of shade
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Has propagules that can remain viable for more than one year
Reproduces asexually
Impact outcomes
Altered trophic level
Damaged ecosystem services
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Infrastructure damage
Modification of hydrology
Modification of natural benthic communities
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts cultural/traditional practices
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Negatively impacts aquaculture/fisheries
Reduced amenity values
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Transportation disruption
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - shading
Interaction with other invasive species
Rapid growth
Rooting
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Difficult to identify/detect as a commodity contaminant
Difficult to identify/detect in the field
Uses
Economic Value
Salvinia auriculata is commercialized as an aquarium and ornamental aquatic plant. It can also be used in artificial wetlands to remove lead and presumably other heavy metal contaminants from wastewaters (Espinoza-Quiñones et al., 2009). Due to its rapid growth and uptake of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen, S. auriculata can be effectively used as a mulch (UC-Davis, 2009). S. auriculata has also been suggested as a bioindicator in aquatic ecosystems where it can be used in monitoring water contaminated by cadmium (Wolff et al., 2012).
Social Benefit
Salvinia auriculata is detrimental to the reproduction of the mosquito Anopheles albimanus. Mats of Salvinia have had a demonstrable inhibitory effect on anopheline breeding. The mechanism in play is apparently an oviposition barrier to gravid A. albimanus. Some consideration has been given to using the plant as a control measure in certain areas (Hobbs and Molina, 1983).
Uses List
General > Botanical garden/zoo
General > Pet/aquarium trade
Ornamental
Ornamental > Christmas tree
Ornamental > Cut flower
Ornamental > garden plant
Ornamental > Potted plant
Ornamental > Propagation material
Ornamental > Seed trade
Environmental > Amenity
Environmental > Biological control
Environmental > Wildlife habitat
Materials > Mulches
Fuels > Biofuels
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Prevention
The vegetative propagules of Salvinia auriculata are very easy to spread. Therefore, educational programmes are usually necessary to decrease this form of human-mediated population expansion. Teaching users how to clean equipment in a way that decreases the chance of transmission is one way to lessen the impact of the human vector.
Control
Physical/Mechanical Control
Mechanical harvesting may be used to control small populations of Salvinia auriculata. Flame control was investigated as a possible control method and was able to achieve only 37% biomass reduction in S. auriculata (as opposed to the 90% reduction observed when flame-harvesting water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes and Brachiaria subquadripara) (Marchi et al., 2005).
Biological Control
Although the weevil, Cyrtobagous salviniae, has been an effective biological control agent for Salvinia molesta infestations it has not proven effective for S. auriculata (UC-Davis, 2009).
Chemical Control
There is no information for the chemical control of Salvinia auriculata. However, the herbicides glyphosate, 2,4-D and trifluralin have been used to control Salvinia minima (Santos and Banzatto, 1998). Note that glyphosate and trifluralin are both potentially toxic to humans.
Gaps in Knowledge/Research Needs
More research needs to be carried out to evaluate the range of impacts that the species has on natives.
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
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