Anagallis arvensis (scarlet pimpernel)
Datasheet Types: Pest, Invasive species, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Anagallis arvensis covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Anagallis arvensis L. (1753)
- Preferred Common Name
- scarlet pimpernel
- Other Scientific Names
- Anagallis caerulea L. (1759)
- Anagallis coerulea Nathh.
- Anagallis foemina Miller
- Anagallis latifolia L. (1753)
- Anagallis mas Vill. (1787)
- Anagallis phoenicea Scop. (1772)
- Anagallis verticillata All. (1785)
- International Common Names
- Englishblue pimpernelcare-allcommon pimpernelpoor man's weatherglassred chickweed
- Spanishcoralillojaboncillomurrajespilpispimpinela escarlata
- Frenchmorgelinemorgeline d'etemouron des champsmouron rouge
- Arabic'ayen el jamel
- Portugueseescarlatemorriao vermelhomurriao
- Local Common Names
- Algerializiregmeridjana
- Brazilescalarte
- Chilepimpinela azul
- Croatiakrika poljska
- Czechoslovakia (former)drchnicka roini
- Denmarkrod arve
- Egypt'ain el-gamalomm lebbenqonfoodasaboon gheit
- Finlandpuna alpi
- GermanyAcker GauchheilFeld GauchheilRoter Gauchheil
- Hungarymezel tikszem
- Indiabiliputi (Punjabi)krishnaneel
- Iranbazrak vahshee
- Iraqrmaimeeneh
- Italyanagallide rossabellichinamordi-gallina
- Japanakabana aruri hakobe
- Lebanonadhan el far el nabtilubbaynzaghila
- Macedoniavidovcica crvena
- Mauritiusmouron
- Netherlandsgewoon guichelheilguichelheil
- Norwaynonsblomrodarve
- Pakistanbili booti
- Polandkurzyslad polny
- Slovenianjivna kurja cesnjica
- South Africablouseblommetjierooimuur
- Swedenrodarvroedarv
- Taiwanhwo-jin-gu
- Turkeytarla farekulagi
- USApoison chickweedpoisonweedshepherd's clockwink-a-peep
- USA/Hawaiipoisonous pimpernel
- Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)vidovcia
- EPPO code
- ANGAR (Anagallis arvensis)
- EPPO code
- ANGCO (Anagallis coerulea)
Pictures
Flowering plant
A. arvensis flowering. Leaves of other species are present.
John T. Swarbrick
Flowering plant
A. arvensis flowering. Note that blue and red form flowers are both present. Leaves of other species are present.
John T. Swarbrick
Seedlings
John T. Swarbrick
Flower and seed pods.
Single flower (red form) and unripe seed pods of A. arvensis.
John T. Swarbrick
Seedlings
Close-up of A. arvensis seedlings. Note matchstick for scale.
John T. Swarbrick
Flowers
©AgrEvo
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The genus Anagallis contains about 28 species. They are of widespread origin, with many from the European-Mediterranean region, but only A. arvensis is a widespread weed. Two naturally occurring subspecies or colour forms are common: subsp. phoenicia with red flowers; and subsp. caerulea (or coerulea) with blue flowers. Both are extremely variable genetically and morphologically, and many other subspecies have been described. Gasquez and Compoint (1978) and Compoint and Gasquez (1980) discuss the taxonomy of the various forms. The subspecies hybridize readily, and deliberate horticultural hybridization and selection have resulted in a wide range of intermediate flower colours including mauve, pink and white. When naturalized as a weed, A. arvensis subspecies soon revert to either red or blue.The meaning of Anagallis is obscure, but may mean unpretentious; arvensis refers to its frequent occurrence in fields.The chromosome number for both subspecies is normally 2n = 40 (Clapham et al., 1987), but polyploidy is believed to occur in some varieties.
Description
A. arvensis is typically a much branched, prostrate, annual herb with a fibrous root system, although the generally weak stems can also be ascending or even erect and up to 50 cm tall.Dense mats of weak quadrangular stems usually spread outwards from a central base to cover up to 0.25 m². They are hairless and dotted with small dark glands, and have short internodes.The leaves occur in opposite pairs or rarely in whorls of three. They are ovate, stalkless, 5 to 25 mm long, with rounded bases, smooth margins and bluntly pointed tips. They are smooth and hairless, densely dotted beneath with small dark glands, and usually dark-green.The small orange-red, red, blue or occasionally pink or white flowers occur singly in the leaf axils on slender stalks, which hold the flowers erect whilst open but bend downwards in fruit. Each flower has a small, green, 5-pointed calyx, five oval or rounded petals 3 to 5 mm long, and five erect stamens around the unbranched central style.The fruits are rounded, papery capsules 3 to 5 mm across, green at first and ripening to brown before the top breaks away to release the numerous seeds. Each seed is about 1 mm long, brown, angled and finely pitted.The seedlings exhibit epigeal germination. The hypocotyl is 2 to 10 mm long, and the spreading cotyledons ovate to elliptic and 2 to 5 mm long. A single stem with small opposite leaves usually develops above them, with lateral branches developing in all leaf axils.
Distribution
A. arvensis originated in Europe and has been spread, both deliberately as an ornamental and accidentally as a weed, throughout the world. It occurs throughout Europe, except for the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Spitzbergen and northern Russia (Ferguson, 1972). It probably now occurs in all temperate, subtropical and tropical countries, but is principally a weed in cool to warm temperate countries, and in the cooler areas of tropical highlands.
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Land vehicles (pathway vector) | Yes |
Hosts/Species Affected
In addition to the crops listed, A. arvensis may occur as a minor weed of any crop which is grown within its range. It also occurs in gardens, meadows, turf, field borders and other disturbed uncultivated places including native vegetation.
Host Animals
| Host animal | Context | Life stages | Production systems |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bos indicus (zebu) | |||
| Bos taurus (cattle) | |||
| Ovis aries (sheep) |
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
List of Symptoms/Signs
| Symptom or sign | Life stages | Sign or diagnosis | Disease stage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Anorexia, loss or decreased appetite, not nursing, off feed | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Bloody stools, faeces, haematochezia | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Diarrhoea | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Rumen hypomotility or atony, decreased rate, motility, strength | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Ataxia, incoordination, staggering, falling | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Dysmetria, hypermetria, hypometria | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Generalized lameness or stiffness, limping | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Generalized weakness, paresis, paralysis | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Inability to stand, downer, prostration | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Reluctant to move, refusal to move | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Underweight, poor condition, thin, emaciated, unthriftiness, ill thrift | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Weight loss | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Coma, stupor | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Dullness, depression, lethargy, depressed, lethargic, listless | Sign | ||
| Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Seizures or syncope, convulsions, fits, collapse | Sign |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
A. pumila, widespread in the tropics and occurring occasionally as a weed, can be distinguished from A. arvensis by its alternate leaves and whitish flowers which occur in leafy racemes towards the ends of the stems.
Habitat
A. arvensis requires bare soil for germination, and is therefore only common in disturbed places. It requires moist soil but does not tolerate waterlogging, and for successful growth requires ample sunlight without undue shading. It tolerates ground frost to -10° C, but not frozen soil. The plant grows in a wide variety of soils so long as they are moist and well drained, and thrives near the sea and in sandy soils. The species appears most commonly as a winter annual in warmer climates and as a summer annual in colder areas and situations.
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial |
Biology and Ecology
The reproduction of A. arvensis is entirely by seed.Shoot and root length, node and leaf number, and shoot dry weight all vary with both genotype and growth conditions, making it difficult to draw uniform conclusions about the responses of Anagallis arvensis to environmental conditions. Indian genotypes have been found to grow well under 50-100% sunlight, with lower light intensities being better tolerated during early growth. Variations in genotype and phenotype result in large differences in seed production per plant; from 900 under field conditions in Britain to 250,000 in a glasshouse. Up to 2480 viable seeds have been recorded per square metre of soil after 8 years of cropping and 1 year of pasture in Britain, and in a separate observation seeds have been shown to remain viable in field soils for up to 10 years (Holm et al., 1977).Dormancy in viable seeds relies on complex interrelationships between intrinsic and extrinsic factors, ensuring prolonged dormancy of some seeds whilst others germinate almost throughout the year, although only those germinating under favourable conditions may be expected to survive and reproduce. Germination in different genotypes has been shown to be dependent on various combinations of light and temperature. The species is capable of germination between 2 and 25°C, and optimum germination has been recorded in light at 10-20°C (Holm et al., 1977).Although flowering in A. arvensis is usually initiated by lengthening days, this response is variable and may be modified by temperature so that some plants may flower under a wide range of daylengths.The plant reacts to increasing soil nutrient status with greater and more vigorous growth.The biology and ecology of A. arvensis are discussed in more detail in Holm et al. (1977) and Reddy et al. (1989).
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
No information is available on the natural enemies of A. arvensis, other than it being an alternate host for various crop diseases (see Economic Impact).
Impact
The low growth and small root system of A. arvensis suggest that it is not a very competitive weed in most crops, and this is supported by a number of studies in different countries. It may, however, germinate early in spring before other weeds (and crops) become established, develop into dense masses, and thereby suppress the early growth of slow growing crops.A. arvensis has often been considered to be poisonous to stock, but with little supporting evidence from the field. Indoor feeding tests show potential toxicity in some animals, but since it is selectively left in pastures by grazing animals it is probably unpalatable. There is a recent record of buffalo and cattle deaths in India after field grazing of A. arvensis (Sadekar et al., 1996). Cases of human dermatitis have been reported after handling the plant.The seeds of A. arvensis contaminate small-seeded field crops such as lucerne and clovers.A. arvensis is an alternative host for a range of other pests, including beet yellows closterovirus (Stevens et al., 1994), Alternaria brassicae (Ansari et al., 1990), Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Singh and Singh, 1986), Botrytis cinerea (Madhu-Meeta et al., 1986) and root knot nematodes (Alam, 1981).
Threatened Species
| Threatened species | Where threatened | Mechanisms | References | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spermolepis hawaiiensis (Hawaii scaleseed) | Hawaii | Competition - monopolizing resources Ecosystem change / habitat alteration |
Risk and Impact Factors
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Uses
All subspecies of A. arvensis have been used both as ornamental plants and as parents for hybridization to produce new cultivars.The plant was formerly also used medicinally in Europe (Fogelfors, 1984), and is still so used in parts of India (Mukhopadhyay and Duary, 1995). It is apparently eaten as a salad and vegetable in Sweden (Fogelfors, 1984).
Uses List
General > Ornamental
Environmental > Host of pest
Materials > Poisonous to mammals
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Vegetable
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Cultural Control
A. arvensis can usually be controlled by careful inter-row and interplant cultivation, although repeated cultivation may be necessary throughout its growing season. Competition from taller crops is important in reducing its competitiveness. Deep weed-free mulches will generally prevent further germination.
Chemical Control
A. arvensis is poorly controlled by many of the earlier selective herbicides that are safe to use in cereal crops, although spraying young seedlings with either 2,4-D or MCPA will give some control (Ivens, 1967).
A considerable amount of work with newer herbicides (especially in India) has shown that the following are safe and effective in appropriate crops: aziprotryne applied post-emergence in cabbage (Dastgheib and Popay, 1995); chlortoluron applied post-emergence achieved 90% control in wheat (Fazali and Khan, 1991); cyanazine + linuron gave 95% control in peas (Pisum sativum) (Hussain et al., 1990); fluchloralin in chickpea (Maliwal and Jain, 1991; Singh and Bajpai, 1992); fluroxypyr gave excellent control when applied post emergence in wheat (Balyan and Malik, 1992); isoproturon applied pre-emergence in wheat (Yadav et al., 1995) and mustard (Tiwari and Kurchainia, 1993). Various other recommendations are listed below:
methabenzthiazuron (Maliwal and Jain, 1991);
metoxuron (Tiwari and Kurchainia, 1993);
metribuzin (Bains et al., 1980);
metsulfuron-methyl (Pandey and Singh, 1994);
nitrofen (Sharma et al., 1988);
oxadiazon (Singh and Bajpai, 1992; Tiwari and Kurchainia, 1993; Kurchainia et al., 1995);
pendimethalin (Hussain et al., 1990, Singh and Bajpai, 1992);
pendimethalin + oxyflurfen (Scheffer and Hume, 1988, Shams El Din and Salwau, 1994);
terbutron methyl (Pandey and Singh, 1994);
terbutryn + terbuthylazine (Shams El Din and Salwau, 1994);
tribenuron (Malik et al., 1993).
Recommendations for herbicide use in many crops in France are provided by Mamarot and Rodriguez (1997). These include, for example, aclonifen and bentazone.
Registrations for A. arvensis control in Australia include norflurazon, glufosinate-ammonium, bromoxynil + diflufenican, MCPA + terbutryn, metribuzin, chlorthal, chloradiazon, and DSMA + MCPA (Hamilton, 1997).
Biological Control
There have been no attempts at biological control of A. arvensis.
A. arvensis can usually be controlled by careful inter-row and interplant cultivation, although repeated cultivation may be necessary throughout its growing season. Competition from taller crops is important in reducing its competitiveness. Deep weed-free mulches will generally prevent further germination.
Chemical Control
A. arvensis is poorly controlled by many of the earlier selective herbicides that are safe to use in cereal crops, although spraying young seedlings with either 2,4-D or MCPA will give some control (Ivens, 1967).
A considerable amount of work with newer herbicides (especially in India) has shown that the following are safe and effective in appropriate crops: aziprotryne applied post-emergence in cabbage (Dastgheib and Popay, 1995); chlortoluron applied post-emergence achieved 90% control in wheat (Fazali and Khan, 1991); cyanazine + linuron gave 95% control in peas (Pisum sativum) (Hussain et al., 1990); fluchloralin in chickpea (Maliwal and Jain, 1991; Singh and Bajpai, 1992); fluroxypyr gave excellent control when applied post emergence in wheat (Balyan and Malik, 1992); isoproturon applied pre-emergence in wheat (Yadav et al., 1995) and mustard (Tiwari and Kurchainia, 1993). Various other recommendations are listed below:
methabenzthiazuron (Maliwal and Jain, 1991);
metoxuron (Tiwari and Kurchainia, 1993);
metribuzin (Bains et al., 1980);
metsulfuron-methyl (Pandey and Singh, 1994);
nitrofen (Sharma et al., 1988);
oxadiazon (Singh and Bajpai, 1992; Tiwari and Kurchainia, 1993; Kurchainia et al., 1995);
pendimethalin (Hussain et al., 1990, Singh and Bajpai, 1992);
pendimethalin + oxyflurfen (Scheffer and Hume, 1988, Shams El Din and Salwau, 1994);
terbutron methyl (Pandey and Singh, 1994);
terbutryn + terbuthylazine (Shams El Din and Salwau, 1994);
tribenuron (Malik et al., 1993).
Recommendations for herbicide use in many crops in France are provided by Mamarot and Rodriguez (1997). These include, for example, aclonifen and bentazone.
Registrations for A. arvensis control in Australia include norflurazon, glufosinate-ammonium, bromoxynil + diflufenican, MCPA + terbutryn, metribuzin, chlorthal, chloradiazon, and DSMA + MCPA (Hamilton, 1997).
Biological Control
There have been no attempts at biological control of A. arvensis.
.png)
References
Alam MM, 1981. Some additions to the hosts of root-knot nematodes. Indian Phytopathology, 34(2):243
Andreasen C, Stryhn H, Streibig JC, 1996. Decline of the flora in Danish arable fields. Journal of Applied Ecology, 33(3):619-626; 44 ref.
Ansari NA, Khan MW, Muheet A, 1990. Host range of Alternaria brassicae. Acta Botanica Indica, 18(1):104-105
Bains BS, Kanwar RS, Deol DS, 1980. Efficacy of metribuzin in controlling weeds in autumn sugarcane in Punjab. Tropical Pest Management, 26(4):448-449
Balyan RS, Malik RK, 1992. Chemical control of wild oat (Avena ludoviciana) and other weeds in wheat (Triticum aestivum). Beitrage zur Tropischen Landwirtschaft und Veterinarmedizin, 30(2):169-175
Barralis G, Chadoeuf R, 1988. Relationship between weed seed bank and actual flora in arable fields. VIIIe Colloque International sur la Biologie, l'Ecologie et la Systematique des Mauvaises Herbes Paris, France: ANPP, Vol. 1:43-52.
Beste CE, 1976. New herbicides for established strawberries. Proceedings of the Northeastern Weed Science Society, Boston, 30:201.
Beuret E, Caputa J, 1983. Weeds of cultivated crops. Revue Suisse de Viticulture, d'Arboriculture et d'Horticulture, 15(2):89-97
Bhattacharyya G, Pandya SM, 1996. Ecological assessment on agroecosystems of Saurashtra with special reference to weeds. Advances in Plant Sciences, 9(1):153-158; 11 ref.
Bischof F, 1978. Common weeds from Iran, Turkey, the near East and North Africa; paintings by Ellen Mostafawy. (Schriftenreihe der GTZ [Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit, Nr. 49]). Common weeds from Iran, Turkey, the near East and North Africa; paintings by Ellen Mostafawy. (Schriftenreihe der GTZ [Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit, Nr. 49]). Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH. Dag-Hammarskjold-Weg 1, D-6236 Eschborn 1 German Federal Republic, 224 pp.
Borin M, Zanin G, Zuin MC, Cook HF, Lee HC, 1995. The comparison of seed banks in conventional and ridge-tilled soils in north-eastern Italy. In: Soil Management in Sustainable Agriculture. Proceedings, Third International Conference on Sustainable Agriculture, Wye College, University of London. Ashford, UK: Wye College Press.
Chaudhary SA, Parker C, Kasasian L, 1981. Weeds of Central, Southern and Eastern Arabian Peninsula. Tropical Pest Management, 27(2):181-190.
Chaudhary SA, Zawawi MA, 1983. A Manual of Weeds of Central and Eastern Saudi Arabia. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Agriculture and Water.
Clapham AR, Tutin TG, Moore DM, 1987. Flora of the British Isles. Third edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Compoint JP, Gasquez J, 1980. Taxonomic characterisation of some types of Anagallis arvensis L. Proceedings of the 6th International Colloquium on Weed Ecology, Biology and Systematics, organized by COLUMA-EWRS, Montpellier, 1980., Volume II:309-318
Costa RAS, Brauner GL, Silveira Junior P, 1984. Chemical weed control in sugarbeet crops (Beta vulgaris L.). Anais da 2. Reuniao Tecnica Anual da Beterraba Acucareira. Pelotas, Brazil: UEPp de Pelotas, 135-138.
Dangol DR, 1987. Survey of weeds in wheat field at Birganj, Parsa, Nepal. Journal of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Nepal, 8:45-51
Dastgheib F, Popay AJ, 1995. Weed control in cabbages with aziprotryne, clethodim and their combination. Proceedings of the 48th New Zealand Plant Protection Conference. Rotorua, New Zealand: New Zealand Plant Protection Society 331-332.
Drazic D, Glusac D, 1991. Effectiveness and selectiveness of herbicide combination in maize. Savremena Poljoprivreda, 39(5):33-38
Duarte MC, 1995. 35. Capparaceae. In: Paiva J, Martins ES, Diniz MA, Moreira I, Gomes I, Gomes S, eds. Flora de Cabo Verde. Lisboa, Portugal: Instituto de Investigat¦o Cientffica Tropical / Instituto de Investigat¦o e Desenvolvimento Agrário, 3-17.
El-Bially ME, El-Samie FSA, 1996. A study on faba bean-weed interference. Annals of Agricultural Science, Moshtohor, 34(3):859-868; 8 ref.
Fazali Subhan-I, Muhammad Khan, 1991. Effects of Dicuran MA-60 on weed control and wheat yield in irrigated farmer's fields of Peshawar valley. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 7(1):69-74
Ferguson LF, 1972. In: Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA, eds. Flora Europaea. Vol. 3. Diapensiaceae to Myoporaceae. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 28-29.
Figueiredo E, 1995. Cape Verde Flora. Vascular Plants. Primulaceae. Flora de Cabo Verde No. 40. Lisbon, Portugal: Instituto de Investigacao Cienetifica Tropical.
Fogelfors H, 1984. Useful weeds? Part 3. Lantmannen, 105(4):49
Gamor FD, 1987. Syntaxonomy of segetal plants of the Ukrainian Carpathians. Ukraïns'kii Botanichnii Zhurnal, 44(6):17-26; 18 ref.
Garcia Torres L, Vazquez Cobo A, 1979. Notes on weed infestations in rape. Anales, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agronomicas, Serie Proteccion Vegetal, No. 10:139-145
Gasquez J, Compoint JP, 1978. Relationship between the colour of Anagallis arvensis L. plants and their proteins and isoenzymes. Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Serie D, 287:991-1002
Ghafoor A, Shad RA, 1995. Relative competition of grasses, broad leaved and mixed weed population with wheat. Emirates Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 7:55-64; 7 ref.
Hamilton K, 1997. PESKEM - USES - PESTS: The Australian Directory of Registered Pesticides and their Uses. 15th edition. Gatton, Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland.
Haselwood EL, Motter GG, 1966. Handbook of Hawaiian weeds [ed. by Haselwood EL, Motter GG]. Honolulu, HI, USA: Experiment Station/Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, 479 pp.
Hassawy GS, Tammimi SA, Al-Lizzi H, 1968. Weeds in Iraq. Baghdad, Iraq: College of Agriculture, University of Baghdad.
Hepper FN, 1983. The phytogeography of Mount Kulal, Kenya, with special reference to Compositp, Leguminosp and Graminep. Bothalia, 14(3/4):543-551
Hiepko P, 1988. Primulaceae. In: Hafliger TJ, Wolf M, eds. Dicot Weeds, Vol. 1. Basle, Switzerland: CIBA-GEIGY Ltd., 259-263.
Hnatiuk RJ, 1990. Census of Australian Vascular Plants. Australian Flora and Fauna Series Number 11. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Holm LG, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, Plucknett DL, 1991. A Geographic Atlas of World Weeds. Malabar, Florida, USA: Krieger Publishing Company.
Holm LG, Plucknett DL, Pancho JV, Herberger JP, 1977. The World's Worst Weeds. Distribution and Biology. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: University Press of Hawaii.
Horng H-C, Leu L-S, 1980. Weeds of Cultivated Land in Taiwan. Taipei, Taiwan: Weed Science Society of the Republic of China.
Hunyadi K, 1973. Weed problems of the south-western arable lands of Hungary. Jugoslovenski Simpozium o Borbi protiv Korova u Brdsko-Planinskim Podrucjima, Sarajeva, 1973, 61-66
Hussain A, Malukera AM, Muhammad G, Ghani A, 1990. Chemical weed control in peas (Pisum sativum). Journal of Agricultural Research (Lahore), 28(1):19-22
Hussey BMJ, Keighery GJ, Cousens RD, Dodd J, Lloyd SG, 1997. Western weeds. A guide to the weeds of Western Australia. Western weeds. A guide to the weeds of Western Australia., ii + 254 pp.
Ishimine Y, Nakada E, Nakama M, 1982. Studies on sugarcane field weed communities on the Ryukyu Islands (II). Classification of weed communities in the middle area of Okinawa Mainland. Science Bulletin of the College of Agriculture, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 29:241-249.
Ivens GW, 1967. East African Weeds and their Control. Nairobi, Kenya: Oxford University Press.
Koblihova H, 1989. Changes in the weed vegetation in the Bohemian Karst. Preslia, 61(4):335-342
Kurchania SP, Tiwari JP, Paradkar NR, Bhalla CS, 1995. Residual and direct effects of herbicides on weed control and yield of wheat in a rice (Oryza sativa) wheat (Triticum aestivum) cropping system. World Weeds, 2(2):123-129; 4 ref.
Kwiatkowska D, 1995. Ontogenetic changes of phyllotaxis in Anagallis arvensis L. Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae, 64(4):319-325; 27 ref.
Lazarides M, Cowley K, Hohnen P, 1997. CSIRO handbook of Australian weeds. CSIRO handbook of Australian weeds., vii + 264 pp.
Lorenzi H, 1982. Weeds of Brazil, terrestrial and aquatic, parasitic, poisonous and medicinal. (Plantas daninhas de Brasil, terrestres, aquaticas, parasitas, toxicas e medicinais.) Nova Odessa, Brazil: H. Lorenzi, 425 pp.
Lorenzi HJ, Jeffery LS(Editors), 1987. Weeds of the United States and their control. New York, USA; Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., 355 pp.
MacKee HS, 1985. Les Plantes Introduites et Cultivees en Nouvelle-Caledonie. Volume hors series, Flore de la Nouvelle-Caledonie et Dependances. Paris, France: Museum Nationelle d'Histoire Naturelle.
Madhu Meeta, Bedi PS, 1986. New host records of Botrytis cinerea from India. Indian Phytopathology, 39(3):495
Malik RS, Yadav SK, Malik RK, 1993. Evaluation of tribenuron, clopyralid and fluroxypyr for weed control in wheat. Integrated weed management for sustainable agriculture. Proceedings of an Indian Society of Weed Science International Symposium. Hisar, Haryana, India: Indian Society of Weed Science, 2:174-176.
Maliwal PL, Jain GL, 1991. Efficacy of fluchloralin and methabenzthiazuron for selective weed control in potato. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 36(2):258-260
Mamarot J, Rodriguez A, 1997. Sensibilité des Mauvaises Herbes aux Herbicides. 4th edition. Paris, France: Association de Coordination Technique Agricole.
Mehra SP, Kanwar RS, Brar LS, 1993. Chemical control of weeds in autumn planted sugarcane + wheat intercropping system. Journal of Research, Punjab Agricultural University, 30(1-2):1-7
Milton SJ, Dean WRJ, Klotz S, 1997. Effects of small-scale animal disturbances on plant assemblages of set-aside land in Central Germany. Journal of Vegetation Science, 8(1):45-54; 3 pp. of ref.
Moens M, Jami T, Himme M van, Stryckers J, 1980. Chemical weed control in capsicum crops in Tunisia. Mededelingen van de Fakulteit Landbouwwetenschappen, Rijksuniversiteit Gent, 45(4, III):1135-1152
Mukhopadhyay SK, Duary B, 1995. Ethnobotany of some common crop field weeds in a sub-humid agricultural tract of West Bengal. In: Das Gupta MK, Ghosh DC, Gupta DD, Majumdar DK, Chattopadhyay GN, Ganguli PK, Munsi PS, Bhattacharya DJ, eds. Proceedings of the National Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture in Sub-humid Zone. Birbhum, India: Visva-Bharati Institute of Agriculture, 272-277.
National Taiwan University, 1968. Weeds Found in Cultivated Land in Taiwan. Vol. 2. Taipei, Taiwan: Dept of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, National Taiwan University.
Neal MC, 1965. In Gardens of Hawaii. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum Special Publication No. 50. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA: Bishop Museum.
Numata M, Yoshizawa N, 1975. Weed flora of Japan. Japan Association for the Advancement of Phyto-Regulators. Tokyo, Japan: Zenkoku Noson Kyoiku Kyokai.
Ouren T, 1994. Ballast plants and grain mill plants which appeared after soil was dug out. Blyttia, 52(4):149-153; 12 ref.
Pandey J, Singh RP, 1994. Effect of sulphonyl urea herbicides on weed control in wheat (Triticum aestivum). Indian Journal of Agronomy, 39(4):565-568
Parker C, 1992. Weeds of Bhutan. Weeds of Bhutan., vi + 236 pp.
Porwal MK, Singh MM, 1993. Effect of nitrogen and weed management on onion (Allium cepa). Indian Journal of Agronomy, 38(1):74-77
Qasem JR, 1996. Fungicidal activity of Ranunculus asiaticus and other weeds against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici. Annals of Applied Biology, 128(3):533-540; 20 ref.
Reddy VM, Rao VV, Bhattacharyya G, Pandy SM, 1989. Germination characteristics of Anagallis arvensis, L. Advances in Plant Sciences, 2(1):106-115.
Sadekar RD, Bhandarkar AG, Udasi SD, Deshmukh PN, Phadnaik BS, 1996. Toxicity of Anagallis arvensis (blue pimpernel) in cattle and buffaloes. Pashudhan, 11(4):3; 4 ref.
Sahile G, Tanner DG, Zewdie L, 1992. A study of weed emergence patterns in the bread wheat producing agro-ecological zones of southeastern Ethiopia. The seventh regional wheat workshop for eastern, central and southern Africa [edited by Tanner, D.G.; Mwangi, W.] Mexico; CIMMYT, 503-509
Scheffer JJC, Hume RJ, 1988. Pendimethalin for early season weed control in onions in Pukekohe. Proceedings, New Zealand Weed and Pest Control Conference, 81-84
Shams El-Din GM, Salwau MIM, 1994. Effect of weed control and rates of IAA on productivity of faba bean and associated weeds. Annals of Agricultural Science, Moshtohor, 32(3):1119-1130; 16 ref.
Sharma SN, Singh NP, Gopi Chand B, 1988. Herbicides for weed control in barley. Indian Journal of Weed Science, 20(3):105-106
Singh G, Singh OP, 1996. Response of late-sown wheat (Triticum aestivum) to seeding methods and weed-control measures in flood-prone areas. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 41:237-242.
Singh K, Khosla SN, 1989. Weed control in Japanese mint: Part 1. phytosociological aspects of weeds. Indian Perfumer, 33(3):200-206.
Singh SS, Ehsanullah M, Samarjeet Singh, Mishra SS, 1996. Weed control in wheat (Triticum aestivum) under rice (Oryza sativa)-wheat system of north Bihar. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 41(2):243-246; 4 ref.
Singh UP, Singh RB, 1986. Some new hosts of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum from India. Indian Phytopathology, 39(4):626
Singh VK, Bajpai RP, 1992. Chemical control of weeds in chickpea. Indian Journal of Pulses Research, 5(1):86-87
Siverio A, Sobrino E, Rodríguez H, Arévalo JR, 2011. Weeds of golf courses on the island of Tenerife. (Malas hierbas de los campos de golf de la isla de Tenerife.) In: Plantas invasoras resistencias a herbicidas y detección de malas hierbas. XIII Congreso de la Sociedad Española de Malherbología, La Laguna, Spain, 22-24 November 2011 [ed. by Arévalo JR, Fernández S, López F, Recasens J, Sobrino E]. Madrid, Spain: Sociedad Española de Malherbología (Spanish Weed Science Society), 83-86.
Stevens M, Smith HG, Hallsworth PB, 1994. The host range of beet yellowing viruses among common arable weed species. Plant Pathology, 43(3):579-588.
Tang HY, 1991. The Field Weeds of China. Shanghai, China: Shanghai Scientific and Educational Publishing House.
Tanji A, Taleb A, 1994. Weeds on tirs soils in Chaouia. Al Awamia, No. 86:115-130
Taylor P, 1963. 142. Primulaceae. In: Hutchinson J, Dalziel JM, eds. 1963. Flora of West Tropical Africa. Volume 2, 2nd edition. London, UK: Crown Agents, 303-304.
Taylor RL, 1980. Weed of crops and gardens in New Zealand. Weed of crops and gardens in New Zealand. the author. R.D.2, Upper Moutere, Nelson New Zealand, 128 pp.
Tepe I, Bayram E, Demirkan H, 1994. A study of chemical control on weeds in anise (Pimpinella anisum L.). Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 18(1):53-57
Tiwari JP, Kurchainia SP, 1993. Chemical control of weeds in Indian mustard (Brassica juncea). Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 63(5):272-275.
Tripathi SS, Govindra Singh, 1993. Crop-weed competition studies in fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.). Integrated weed management for sustainable agriculture. Proceedings of an Indian Society of Weed Science International Symposium, Hisar, India, 18-20 November 1993 Hisar, Haryana, India; Indian Society of Weed Science, Vol. II:41-43
US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010. In: Spermolepis hawaiiensis (no common name). 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.US Fish and Wildlife Service. 19 pp.
University of Tennessee, 1965. Tennessee Weeds. Knoxville, Tennessee, USA: Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Tennessee.
Vallejo A de, 1980. Malezas de Chile. Santiago, Chile: Estacion Experimental La Platina.
Wells MJ, Balsinhas AA, Joffe H, Engelbrecht VM, Harding G, Stirton CH, 1986. A catalogue of problem plants in South Africa. Memoirs of the botanical survey of South Africa No 53. Pretoria, South Africa: Botanical Research Institute.
Whibley DJE, Christensen TJ, 1982. Garden Weeds: Identification and Control. Handbook 3. Adelaide, Australia: Adelaide Botanic Gardens.
Wilding JL, Barnett AG, Amor RL, 1986. Crop Weeds. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press.
Yadav PK, Kurchania SP, Tiwari JP, 1995. Herbicide and fertilizer compatibility under normal and stale seedbed sowing of wheat (Triticum aestivum) at different levels of nitrogen. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 65(4):265-270; 8 ref.
Zannetos C, Americanos PG, Furness W, 1976. Selective use of VEL-5052 in Cyprus for weed control in cucurbits. Proceedings 10th International Velsicol Symposium, Brighton, UK, 1976.
Hassannejad, S., Ghafarbi, S. P., 2014. Weed flora survey in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) fields of Shabestar (northwest of Iran).Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 60(7) 971-991.
Fazal Hadi, Muhammad Ibrar, 2015. Ecology of weeds in wheat crops of Kalash valley, district Chitral, Hindukush Range, Pakistan.Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 21(3) 425-433. http://www.wssp.org.pk/vol-21-3-2015/11.%20PJWSR-06-2015.pdf
Tahira, J. J., Khan, S. N., 2017. Diversity of weed flora in onion fields of Punjab, Pakistan.Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 23(2) 245-253. http://www.wssp.org.pk/resources/images/paper/955QW1498306408.pdf
Moskova, T., Dimitrov, G., Tityanov, M., 2018. Distribution and degree of weed growth of amaranth and other weeds in sunflower crops in Plovdiv and Stara Zagora regions.Journal of Mountain Agriculture on the Balkans, 21(1) 158-168. http://www.rimsa.eu/images/forage_production_vol_21-1_part_2_2018.pdf
Shah, G. M., Khan, M. A., 2006. Checklist of noxious weeds of district Mansehra, Pakistan.Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 12(3) 213-219. http://wssp.org.pk/
Marwat, K. B., Zahid Hussain, Bakhtiar Gul, Muhammad Saeed, Siraj-ud-Din, 2006. Survey on weed problems in wheat crop in district Mardan.Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 12(4) 353-358. http://wssp.org.pk/
Kazi, B. R., Buriro, A. H., Kubar, R. A., Jagirani, A. W., 2007. Weed spectrum frequency and density in wheat, (Triticum aestivum L.) under Tandojam conditions.Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 13(3/4) 241-246. http://wssp.org.pk/
Tahira, J. J., Khan, S. N., Ruqia Suliman, Waheed Anwar, 2010. Weed flora of Curcuma longa fields of District Kasur, Pakistan.Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 16(2) 241-246. http://www.wssp.org.pk/
Rahmatullah Qureshi, Bhatti, G. R., 2001. Determination of weed communities in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) fields of district Sukkur.Pakistan Journal of Botany, 33(1) 109-115.
Abdul Waheed, Rahmatullah Qureshi, Jakhar, G. S., Hayatullah Tareen, 2009. Weed community dynamics in wheat crop of district Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan.Pakistan Journal of Botany, 41(1) 247-254. http://www.pjbot.org
Ihsan Ullah, Wazir, S. M., Ayesha Farooq, Khan, S. U., Zahid Hussain, 2011. Identification of common weeds and its distribution pattern in wheat fields of FR Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 17(4) 407-416. http://www.wssp.org.pk/174-12.pdf
Khan, R. U., Wazir, S. M., Muhammad Subhan, Saad Ullah, Hidayat Ullah, Aysha Farooq, Farheen Jaffar, Shazia, Shah, I. A., Mustafa Kamal, 2012. Weed flora of sugarcane in district Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Pakistan.Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 18(4) 541-552. http://www.wssp.org.pk/article.htm
Pala, F., 2020. Observation of weed species, frequency and density in common barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) fields of Diyarbakir, Turkey: a case study.Tarim Bilimleri Dergisi, 26(2) 164-172.
Balli, H. M., Özaslan, C., 2020. Weed flora of lentil in Diyarbakır province, Turkey.Agriculture and Forestry, 66(2) 179-190.
Information & Authors
Information
Published In
Copyright
Copyright © CABI. CABI is a registered EU trademark. This article is published under a Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)
History
Published online: 16 November 2021
Language
English
Authors
Metrics & Citations
Metrics
SCITE_
Citations
Export citation
Select the format you want to export the citations of this publication.
EXPORT CITATIONSExport Citation
View Options
View options
Login Options
Check if you access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.