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22 November 2019

Theileria parva infections

Datasheet Type: Animal disease

Abstract

This datasheet on Theileria parva infections covers Identity, Overview, Associated Diseases, Pests or Pathogens, Distribution, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Pathology, Epidemiology, Impacts, Prevention/Control, Further Information.

Identity

Preferred Scientific Name
Theileria parva infections
International Common Names
English
Corridor disease
East Coast fever
Fortuna disease
January disease
theileriosis in ruminants - exotic
theileriosis, Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe theileriosis
Zimbabwean theileriosis
Local Common Names
Murimu wa ngai
Ol tegana

Pictures

Smear of biopsy material taken from the lymph node draining the site of inoculation of sporozoites, during the early stages of infection with Theileria parva: multinucleate schizont-infected cells entering mitosis prior to cell division and synchronous division of schizonts. The parasites disseminate throughout the host in such clonally replicating infected cells.
Theileria parva
Smear of biopsy material taken from the lymph node draining the site of inoculation of sporozoites, during the early stages of infection with Theileria parva: multinucleate schizont-infected cells entering mitosis prior to cell division and synchronous division of schizonts. The parasites disseminate throughout the host in such clonally replicating infected cells.
The University of Edinburgh
Swollen lymph node draining site of inoculation of sporozoites of T. parva.
Disease course
Swollen lymph node draining site of inoculation of sporozoites of T. parva.
The University of Edinburgh
The life cycle of a typical Theileria species, as illustrated by those of T. annulata and T. parva, comprises a cycle of clonal replication of schizonts in mononuclear cells in lymphoid and reticuloendothelial tissues followed by the appearance of 'piroplasms' - small (<3u) and plemorphic organisms - in erythrocytes. T.parva proliferates as schizonts; its piroplasms do not multiply. Schizonts are the major proliferating stage of T. annulata.. In infections of T. annulata, at least, elevated parasitaemias arise when erythrocytes are invaded by massive numbers of merozoites produced by large populations of schizonts. Members of the T. orientalis/T. buffeli group proliferates mainly as piroplasms. In every species, piroplasms include parasites undergoing gametogony and producing the gametocytes which are infective for ticks. Differentiation into gametes and sexual recombination occurs in the tick gut. Kinetes developing from zygotes in the gut cells appear to migrate directly to the
Life cycle of a typical Theileria species
The life cycle of a typical Theileria species, as illustrated by those of T. annulata and T. parva, comprises a cycle of clonal replication of schizonts in mononuclear cells in lymphoid and reticuloendothelial tissues followed by the appearance of 'piroplasms' - small (<3u) and plemorphic organisms - in erythrocytes. T.parva proliferates as schizonts; its piroplasms do not multiply. Schizonts are the major proliferating stage of T. annulata. In infections of T. annulata, at least, elevated parasitaemias arise when erythrocytes are invaded by massive numbers of merozoites produced by large populations of schizonts. Members of the T. orientalis/T. buffeli group proliferates mainly as piroplasms. In every species, piroplasms include parasites undergoing gametogony and producing the gametocytes which are infective for ticks. Differentiation into gametes and sexual recombination occurs in the tick gut. Kinetes developing from zygotes in the gut cells appear to migrate directly to the
Elsevier Science
Abomasal haemorrhages.
Advanced stage of East Coast fever
Abomasal haemorrhages.
The University of Edinburgh
Caecal ulcers.
Advanced stages of East Coast fever
Caecal ulcers.
The University of Edinburgh
Sporozoites of T. parva developing in a salivary gland cell of R. appendiculatus.
Epidemiology
Sporozoites of T. parva developing in a salivary gland cell of R. appendiculatus.
The University of Edinburgh
Pulmonary oedema.
Advanced stage of East Coast fever
Pulmonary oedema.
The University of Edinburgh
Characteristic diffuse lymphoblastoid response in the paracortex of the lymph node draaining he site of inoculation of sporozoites during the late stages of East Coast fever, stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin (Original x 250).
Histopathology
Characteristic diffuse lymphoblastoid response in the paracortex of the lymph node draaining he site of inoculation of sporozoites during the late stages of East Coast fever, stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin (Original x 250).
The University of Edinburgh
Brown ear tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus) infestation on the ear of a calf.
Theileria parva vector
Brown ear tick (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus) infestation on the ear of a calf.
©The University of Edinburgh
Diagrammatic representation of the intra-erythrocytic stages of T. annulata, T. parva and members of the T. orientalis/T. buffeli group. Some forms of piroplasms dominate in certain species: round and oval forms in T annulata; rods in T. parva; rods and elongate forms in T. orientalis/T. buffeli. Veils consist of a haemoglobin derived substance; bars are connected with the parasite and the outside of the cell. Both structures are thought to be of parasite origin. T. parva only produces a veil in Syncerus cafffer. Bars occur in all strains of T. orientalis/T. buffeli; veils are absent in N. American strains and not yet recorded for Chinese or African strains.
Diagram
Diagrammatic representation of the intra-erythrocytic stages of T. annulata, T. parva and members of the T. orientalis/T. buffeli group. Some forms of piroplasms dominate in certain species: round and oval forms in T annulata; rods in T. parva; rods and elongate forms in T. orientalis/T. buffeli. Veils consist of a haemoglobin derived substance; bars are connected with the parasite and the outside of the cell. Both structures are thought to be of parasite origin. T. parva only produces a veil in Syncerus cafffer. Bars occur in all strains of T. orientalis/T. buffeli; veils are absent in N. American strains and not yet recorded for Chinese or African strains.
Used with permission from Academic Press Ltd.

Pathogens (Animal Disease)

Overview

Theileria parva is a highly pathogenic tickborne intracellular protozoan parasite of cattle, found mostly in eastern, central and southern Africa. It causes the lympho-proliferative diseases known as East Coast fever (Jura and Losos, 1980; Irvin and Mwamachi, 1983; Lawrence et al., 1994b), Corridor disease (Jura and Losos, 1980; Lawrence et al., 1994a) and January disease (Lawrence et al., 1994e). In eastern Africa in particular, it causes both mortality and reduced production, and has significant economic impacts as a result.
Datasheets are also available on bovine theilerioses and theileriosis in general (as well as other specific Theilieria infections).

Systems Affected

Distribution

East Coast fever is essentially present in central and eastern Africa; other forms of T. parva infection are found in southern Africa (Norval et al., 1992). The disease was spread to the Comoros in 2003 (Deken et al., 2007). There are a small number of reports of T. parva in western Africa, namely in Nigeria (Pukuma et al., 2011; Egbe-Mwiyi and Chaudhari, 1996) and São Tomé and Príncipe (Addah, 1987), although it is not clear that it causes significant disease there.
During 2011, ten countries reported 1942 outbreaks of bovine theileriosis to the AU-IBAR: Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Sudan, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, although the cases in Egypt and at least some of those in Sudan were presumably not caused by T. parva. Kenya recorded the highest number of outbreaks (1356), Tanzania the highest number of cases (14,700) and Zambia the highest number of deaths (1444).
Updated information on the distribution of theileriosis in general (as distinct from Theileria parva infections in particular) can be found in OIE's WAHID database on disease occurrence: http://www.oie.int/en/links/wahid/.

Distribution Map

This content is currently unavailable.

Distribution Table

This content is currently unavailable.

Host Animals

Host animalContextLife stagesProduction systems
Bos indicus (zebu)
Domesticated host
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
 
Bos taurus (cattle)
Domesticated host
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
 
Bubalus bubalis (Asian water buffalo)   
Syncerus caffer
Wild host
  

List of Symptoms/Signs

Symptom or signLife stagesSign or diagnosisDisease stage
Terrestrial animals/Cardiovascular Signs/Tachycardia, rapid pulse, high heart rate
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Anorexia, loss or decreased appetite, not nursing, off feed
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Bloody stools, faeces, haematochezia Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Dark colour stools, faeces
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Decreased amount of stools, absent faeces, constipation
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Diarrhoea
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Excessive salivation, frothing at the mouth, ptyalism Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Mucous, mucoid stools, faeces Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Digestive Signs/Rumen hypomotility or atony, decreased rate, motility, strength
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Abnormal proprioceptive positioning, knuckling Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Ataxia, incoordination, staggering, falling
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Dehydration
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Dysmetria, hypermetria, hypometria Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Fever, pyrexia, hyperthermia
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Diagnosis 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Generalized weakness, paresis, paralysis Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Head, face, ears, jaw, nose, nasal, swelling, mass Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Icterus, jaundice
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Inability to stand, downer, prostration
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Lack of growth or weight gain, retarded, stunted growth Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Lymphadenopathy, swelling, mass or enlarged lymph nodes
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Diagnosis 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Neck swelling, mass cervical region Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Opisthotonus Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Pale mucous membranes or skin, anemia
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Paraparesis, weakness, paralysis both hind limbs
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Petechiae or ecchymoses, bruises, ecchymosis
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Diagnosis 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Reluctant to move, refusal to move
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Sudden death, found dead
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Swelling skin or subcutaneous, mass, lump, nodule Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Trembling, shivering, fasciculations, chilling Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Underweight, poor condition, thin, emaciated, unthriftiness, ill thrift
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/General Signs/Weight loss
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Abnormal behavior, aggression, changing habits Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Circling
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Coma, stupor
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Dullness, depression, lethargy, depressed, lethargic, listless
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Head pressing
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Hyperesthesia, irritable, hyperactive Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Seizures or syncope, convulsions, fits, collapse Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Nervous Signs/Tremor
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Ophthalmology Signs/Blindness Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Ophthalmology Signs/Corneal edema, opacity
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Ophthalmology Signs/Entropion, inverted eyelid Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Ophthalmology Signs/Lacrimation, tearing, serous ocular discharge, watery eyes
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Ophthalmology Signs/Nystagmus Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Ophthalmology Signs/Photophobia
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Ophthalmology Signs/Purulent discharge from eye
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Reproductive Signs/Abortion or weak newborns, stillbirth
Cattle & Buffaloes/Heifer
Cattle & Buffaloes/Cow
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Reproductive Signs/Agalactia, decreased, absent milk production
Cattle & Buffaloes/Cow
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Abnormal lung or pleural sounds, rales, crackles, wheezes, friction rubs
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Coughing, coughs
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Dyspnea, difficult, open mouth breathing, grunt, gasping
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Increased respiratory rate, polypnea, tachypnea, hyperpnea
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Diagnosis 
Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Mucoid nasal discharge, serous, watery Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Respiratory Signs/Purulent nasal discharge
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Skin/Integumentary Signs/Pruritus, itching skin Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Skin/Integumentary Signs/Skin edema Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Skin/Integumentary Signs/Skin papules
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Skin/Integumentary Signs/Skin plaque Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Skin/Integumentary Signs/Skin wheal, welt Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Urinary Signs/Haemoglobinuria or myoglobinuria Sign 
Terrestrial animals/Urinary Signs/Red or brown urine, pink Sign 

Diagnosis

For information on diagnosis, see the 'bovine theilerioses' datasheet. The  indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) is a prescribed test for international trade, and is described in OIE's Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals (OIE, 2013; http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Health_standards/tahm/2.04.16_THEILIERIOSIS.pdf).

Pathology

At death, cases of East Coast fever (ECF) most commonly show evidence of pneumonia and pulmonary oedema with froth in the trachea, bronchi and nostrils (Brown, 1990). The post-mortem findings in acute, lethal cases of ECF (see pictures) are described by Irvin and Mwamachi (1983), Levine (1985) and Lawrence et al. (1994b). The most dramatic pathological changes occur in the respiratory organs. In acute cases, animals may die before mucosal lesions become apparent in the gastrointestinal tract. In prolonged cases, following necrosis of the lymphoid tissue, ulceration may be seen in the Peyer's patches of the small intestine (Irvin and Mwamachi, 1983). The condition of the lymphoid organ may vary between infections caused by different parasite stocks and depending on the duration of disease reaction (Brown, 1990). There may be generalized hyperplasia of the lymph nodes, spleen and lymphoid tissue in the liver, kidneys and gut or, despite aberrant lympho-proliferation, the nodes and spleen may be exhausted, the nodes oedematous, and the spleen dry and aplastic.
The general post-mortem findings are:
Carcasses: often a frothy exudate around the nostrils, emaciation, and dehydration in protracted cases.
Lymph nodes: in acute cases, oedematous, hyperaemic and may be greatly enlarged. In protracted cases they may be shrunken and necrotic.
Thymus: atrophy, with necrosis common in young animals.
Heart: petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhages are common on the epicardium and endocardium. There may be a serous fluid in the pericardium.
Trachea and bronchi: may be full of white, frothy exudate.
Lungs: interlobular oedema, emphysema and hyperaemia.
Pleural cavity: petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhages on the serosal surfaces. Serous fluid.
Spleen: mushy or dry, swollen or shrunken. Subcapsular ecchymotic haemorrhages are common.
Liver: usually normal although it may be enlarged and mottled.
Gall bladder: is usually normal.
Kidneys: petechial haemorrhages are common on the surface. Greyish-red or white 'pseudoinfarcts' of lymphoid tissue can be seen in the renal cortex and the cortex may be congested.
Bladder: small haemorrhagic lesions on the mucosal and serosal surface.
Peritoneum and viscera: petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhages are common on the serosal surfaces.
Abomasum: ecchymotic and larger haemorrhages (up to 1cm) with ulceration common on the mucosa.
Small and large intestines: petechial haemorrhages on mucosal surfaces throughout.
Peyer's patches: may be swollen.
Nervous system: changes are rarely obvious. There may be some hyperaemia.
Bladder: small haemorrhagic lesions on the mucosal and serosal surfaces. There may be haemorrhages in the muscles, subcutaneous tissues and in the myelin sheath of nerves.

Disease Course

T. parva is highly pathogenic to cattle, causing the lympho-proliferative diseases known as East Coast fever (Jura and Losos, 1980; Irvin and Mwamachi, 1983; Lawrence et al., 1994b), Corridor disease (Jura and Losos, 1980; Lawrence et al., 1994a) and January disease (Lawrence et al., 1994e).
The pathogenic mechanisms associated with East Coast fever have been described in detail by Lawrence et al. (1994b), in particular the role of the coagulation cascade, the complement cascade and the vasoactive components. Non-regenerative anaemia and icterus are sometimes seen in T. parva infections but evidence of a haemolytic process is lacking (Lawrence et al., 1994b).
There is increasing evidence for a pathogenic role of immune responses in bovine theilerioses. T. annulata and T. parva schizont-infected cells activate autologous lymphocytes non-specificallyin vitro (Pearson et al., 1979, 1982; Campbellet al., 1995); if such activation occurs in vivo, it could cause a cascade of detrimental cytokine-related effects. Protection against T. parva appears to be mediated primarily by CD8 major histocompatibilty complex class I restricted cytotoxic lymphocytes (Mc Keever et al., 1999), with CD4+ T-cells and gd -T-cells helping to contain infection by lyzing schizont-infected lymphocytes and producing parasite-inhibitory cytokines. A degree of resistance in young calves under conditions of endemic stability suggests a role for innate immune mechanisms. The failure of animals undergoing primary infection with T. parva to mobilize protective cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells and to control infection has been attributed to the down-regulation of type 1 T-cell responses by interleukin-10 (IL-10) produced by the schizont-infected lymphocytes (McKeever et al., 1997). The extensive lymphocytolysis and leucopenia seen in the late stages of East Coast fever may be due to the marked non-specific lytic activity observed in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells at this time.

East Coast fever (ECF)

ECF is a non-contagious, febrile disease of cattle that is characterized by high fever, leucopenia and severe damage to the lymphoid system (Brown, 1990). The disease may occur as a mild, per-acute, acute or sub-acute form (Lawrence et al., 1994b). In susceptible cattle, acute lethal disease normally lasts about three weeks, with a pre-patent period of five to twelve days after infection with sporozoites. Pronounced clinical symptoms develop as the schizont-infected cells disseminate rapidly.
The parasites causing East Coast fever (ECF) are mostly maintained by cattle-tick transmission (Lawrence et al., 1994b). Infection is subclinical or mild in African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), which serve as a maintenance host in some areas. In the Asian buffalo, the disease resembles that seen in oxen. ECF is fatal in cattle of European origin (Bos taurus). African zebu or Sanga cattle (predominantly Bos indicus) respond variably to infection. Significant numbers of clinical cases occur in endemic areas only when susceptible cattle, particularly improved dairy or beef breeds, are introduced and become infested with ticks. For further information on the susceptibility of different types of cattle, see the 'Hosts/Species Affected' section in the 'bovine theilerioses' datasheet.
The early clinical signs of ECF arepyrexia, leucopenia, listlessness, loss of appetite, deterioration of bodily condition and milk production, enlargement of lymph nodes draining the site of inoculation of the parasite, and palpable enlargement of and heat in other nodes. As the disease progresses, appetite and rumination cease, and bodily condition degenerates rapidly. Emaciation follows cachexia, and lethargy, weakness and recumbency increase. Animals are reluctant to move, remain tucked up and hang their heads. Constipation, lacrimation and photophobia occur. The mucous membranes are unaffected; animals become slightly hyperaemic or even anaemic; petechial haemorrhages are common under the tongue and on the vulva of infected animals. During the later stages, if disease is prolonged, diarrhoea and dysentery may develop and blood may appear in the faeces. Anaemia and icterus may occur and nodular skin lesions may develop. In the terminal stages,animals undergosevere respiratory distress, with a watery cough due to pulmonary oedema. As oedema increases, watery frothy fluid runs from the mouth and nostrils, animals become recumbent, copious quantities of fluid may pour from the nostrils and death is normally due to asphyxiation following pulmonary oedema.
Death may occur within a week. More commonly, the clinical phase lasts about two to three weeks. Symptoms other than hyperthermia and lymphadenopathy are rare (Brown, 1990). In per-acute cases, animals may die before marked respiratory symptoms arise. Pregnant animals may abort during the pyrexic stage or recovery stage. Animals that develop severe respiratory or nervous symptoms rarely recover; those that survive often fail to regain normal levels of productivity. Sub-lethal acute disease may be followed by complete recovery or persist for months leading to chronic, often irreversible emaciation. Mortality among indigenous cattle may be negligible, but the disease significantly reduces growth and productivity.

Corridor disease and January disease

Corridor disease (Jura and Losos, 1980; Lawrence et al., 1994a) is an acute usually fatal disease of cattle that occurs sporadically wherever ticks transmit T. parva from infected African buffaloes to cattle. The 'buffalo-adapted' parasites causing this disease are usually non-pathogenic to African buffaloes, but they are not well adapted to cattle. The schizonts are fewer and smaller than in ECF and usually fail to develop to piroplasms.
January disease, Zimbabwe theileriosis or Fortuna disease (Lawrence et al., 1994e) is an acute, strictly seasonal, frequently fatal disease of cattle caused by T. parva in the high and low areas of Zimbabwe. Its occurrence (December to May) coincides with the seasonal distribution of adult Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks. Schizonts and piroplasms, when present, are scanty. Primary outbreaks are associated with new additions to the herd.
Corridor disease and January disease have the same clinical signs as ECF, but the clinical symptoms last only a few days after the first onset of signs. Emaciation and diarrhoea are not seen.
Turning sickness of cattle (Lawrence et al., 1994d) is an aberrant form of infection characterized by the sudden onset of nervous signs caused by an accumulation of parasitized lymphoblasts in the cerebral blood vessels, leading to thrombosis and infarction. In East Africa it is caused by T. parva and in South Africa by T. taurotragi.

Epidemiology

The presence of T. parva is mostly maintained by cattle-tick transmission (Lawrence et al., 1994b). African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), in which infection is subclinical or mild, serve as a maintenance host in some areas. Studies of the epidemiology of T. parva in eastern, central and southern Africa are described by Norval et al. (1991, 1992) and Lawrence et al. (1994b, c, d, e). Kalume et al. (2011) review the literature on the epidemiology and control of East Coast Fever in Africa, and Gachohi et al. (2012) provide another review of its epidemiology in Kenya specifically.
Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, the major field vector of T. parva, inhabits wooded and shrubby grassland from South Sudan through East and Central Africa to South Africa (Norval et al., 1992). Its role, and that of the two other field vectors of T. parva, R.zambeziensis and R. duttoni, in the epidemiology of T. parva isdiscussed by Norval et al. (1991, 1992). Other species of tick can transmit T. parva experimentally, but are not known as field vectors (Norval et al., 1992). Molecular tools, using nucleic acid-based hybridization techniques, have been used to help clarify the taxonomic identities and relationships of ticks (Sparagano and Jongejan, 1999) and detect pathogens within ticks (Figueroa and Buening, 1995; Sparagano and Jongejan, 1999; Sparagano et al., 1999). They can also be used for defining infection dynamics of T. parva, and disease risks in various farming systems in East Africa (Morzaria et al., 1999)
There is a preliminary report of vertical transmission of T. parva, to calves whose mothers had been immunized against the disease by the infection and treatment method (Mbyuzi et al., 2013).

Impact: Economic

Many factors are involved in assessing the economic impact of tick-borne diseases such as the theilerioses (Mukhebi, 1992). Mukhebi (1992) and Mukhebi et al. (1992) estimated that in 1989 T. parva infection in Africa resulted in losses of US$168 million ($7.02 per animal) due to mortality (including the deaths of 1.1 million cattle) and production loss among cattle (this being the largest contributor to the total), and the costs of control. Eradication of T. parva from South Africa is calculated to have cost US$ 137 million (at the 1989 exchange rate) (Mazibe and Lopes Pereira, 1989).
During 2011, ten countries reported 1,942 outbreaks of bovine theileriosis to the AU-IBAR, with 28,427 cases and 2133 deaths (AU-IBAR, 2011) -- see table below, although the cases in Egypt and at least some of those in Sudan were presumably not T. parva. The number of outbreaks recorded was highest in 2011 compared to previous years. Kenya recorded the highest number of outbreaks (1356), Tanzania the highest number of cases (14,700) and Zambia the highest number of deaths (1444).
Countries reporting theileriosis to the AU-IBAR in 2011
CountryOutbreaksCasesDeathsSlaughteredDestroyed
Comoros
2
104
 
 NS
0
Congo DRC
3
415
0
0
0
Egypt
402
5259
 
 NS
 NS
Kenya
1356
1657
155
0
0
Malawi
3
6
6
 NS
 NS
Mozambique
8
56
30
0
0
Sudan
12
708
382
0
5
Tanzania
44
14,700
102
 NS
 NS
Zambia
83
5476
1444
 NS
 NS
Zimbabwe
29
46
14
 NS
 NS
Total (10)194228,427213305
NS=Not specified

Disease Treatment Table

Veterinary advice should be sought before applying any treatment or vaccine.

DrugDosageLife stagesAdverse affectsDrug resistance
buparvaquoneTwo doses of 2.5 mg/kg body weight (48 hours apart). Given intramuscularly. Withdrawal times:For milk- 2 days;For meat- 42 days.Always seek veterinary advice before administering treatment.
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
ToxicNo
halofuginone lactateTwo doses of 1.2 mg/kg bodyweight (repeated administration) given orally. Withdrawal time:For milk- 8 days;For meat- 24 days. Always seek veterinary advice before administering treatment.
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
ToxicNo
parvaquoneTwo doses of 10 mg/kg milk bodyweight (48 hours apart). Given intramucularly. Withdrawal times:For milk- 14 days;For meat- 28 days.Always seek veterinary advice before administering treatment.
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
ToxicNo

Disease Treatment

The napthoquinones parvaquone (Hawa et al., 1988; Gill et al., 1981; McHardy et al., 1983) and buparvaquone (McHardy et al., 1985; McHardy, 1989; McHardy, 1991), and the febrifuginone halofuginone lactate (Schein and Voigt, 1979, 1981), will cure clinical disease resulting from infection with T. annulata or T. parva. However, the therapeutic dose of halofuginone (1.2 mg/kg) often produces side effects (Schein and Voigt, 1979). Parvaquone does not affect a parasitological cure and recovered animals may take several months to return to a normal level of productivity (Dolan, 1986). Cattle treated with parvaquone or halofuginone can become carriers of T. parva, and therefore a source of infection for other cattle (Norval et al., 1992).
Buparvaquone is a safe and effective drug, which can be used both prophylactically (during prepatent/incubation period) and therapeutically (during patent disease) against T. parva (McHardy et al., 1985; McHardy, 1991; Dolan et al., 1992) (and also T. annulata: McHardy et al., 1985; Dhar et al., 1987, 1988, 1990; McHardy, 1991; Sharma and Mishra, 1990; Singh et al., 1993). However in young calves, haematopoiesis-stimulating drugs must be applied together with buparvaquone to avoid the deleterious effects of severe anaemia (Dhar et al., 1988).
Tetracyclines are effective against the schizonts of T. parva (Dolan, 1981), as well as T. annulata (Gill et al., 1978; Jagdish et al., 1979; Pipano et al., 1981; Mallick et al., 1987), although for T. annulata at least they need to be used in large doses during the prepatent/incubation period of infection (Hashemi-Fershaki and Shad-Del, 1974).
Kalume et al. (2011) review the literature on the epidemiology and control of T. parva in Africa.

Vaccines

Veterinary advice should be sought before applying any treatment or vaccine.

VaccineDosageLife stagesAdverse affects
infection and treatment methodCryopreserved stabilate of an infectious dose of sporozoites (prepared from ground up ticks). If virulent, an antibiotic is given simultaneously; if avirulent, no antibiotic. Eastern Zambia: local strain of sporozoites administered with long acting oxytetracycline (20 mg/kg) given simultaneously.Tanzania, Uganda: cocktail of East African stocks.Kenya: experimentally using Marikebuni stock from Kenyan coast.Zimbabwe: Local 'Boleni' avirulent strain used with or without antibiotic treatment.
Cattle & Buffaloes/All Stages
Patent clinical disease: if necessary treat as above.

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Norval et al. (1992) describe the different methods used for control of theilersiosis in Africa, and their efficacy: tick control by acaricides or a variety of other methods such as livestock movement restrictions or habitat modification; immunization; drug therapy; and integrated control.
Immunization against T. parva infections responsible for East Coast fever, January disease and Corridor disease depends on the infection and treatment method (Radley et al., 1975; Cunningham, 1977; Irvin et al., 1989: Lawrence et al., 1994b; Pegram et al., 1996; McKeever et al., 1999; OIE, 2013). In this method, cattle are infected with a dose of viable sporozoites and infection is then deliberately blocked by chemotherapy. This method, albeit costly, has proved successful in a number of field trials in several different African countries (Robson et al., 1977; Uilenberg et al., 1977a; Dolan et al., 1980, 1987; Morzaria et al., 1987, 1988; Musisi et al., 1989; Berkvens, 1991). The avirulent 'Boleni' stock from Zimbabwe (Irvin et al., 1989) may serve as a suitable vaccine in the absence of chemotherapy. To avoid importing new strains into an area and because of the strain specificity of T. parva (McKeever et al., 1999), sporozoites should be prepared from local stocks. Details of vaccine preparation are summarised by Lawrence et al. (1994b) and OIE (2013).
On farms where T. parva is a serious problem, immunization coupled with a strategic dipping programme could be economically attractive (Pegram et al., 1996).
The use of the infection and treatment method of immunization carries risks: it appears that the disease was introduced to the Comoros in imported cattle that had been infected in Tanzania by ticks that had previously fed on vaccinated animals (Deken et al., 2007), and there is a prelimiinary report of vertical transmission of the infection to calves born to immunized cows (Mbyuzi et al., 2013).
Immunization against T. parva by cell line vaccines is not feasible as 108 cells in 100 ml diluent are required for successful protection (Lawrence et al., 1994b) because schizonts fail to transfer easily to the host's lymphocytes (Innes et al., 1989). Efforts have therefore been directed towards developing sub-unit vaccines (McKeever et al., 1999; Hall et al., 2000). Molecular tools have proved useful in analysing the biological impact of introducing live vaccines of T. parva on population dynamics (Morzaria et al., 1999).
Morrison and McKeever (2006) provide a review of the then current status of vaccine development against Theileria, describing live vaccines as still the best option although there had been useful progress towards the development of subunit vaccines.
Control of ticks, often by means of acaricides, has been widely used against T. parva, although the need for frequent treatment makes the use of acaricides costly and there are other disadvantages such as resistance and acaricide residues (Norval et al., 1992; Kalume et al., 2011). Walker et al. (2014) indicate that acaricide application on cattle can significantly reduce the pathogen load, but does not diminish transmission in wild African buffalo, so continued use of acaricides will be necessary.
East Coast Fever, but not other forms of T. parva infection, was eradicated from southern Africa in the 20th century (having been introduced at the beginning of the century) by a combination of short-interval acaricide dipping, surveillance, quarantine and slaughter (Norval et al., 1992).

Links to Websites

NameURLComment
Consultanthttp://www.vet.cornell.edu/consultant/consult.asp 
DFID/ILRI - Vaccination against ECFhttp://www.researchintouse.com/nrk/RIUinfo/PF/AHP14.htm 
Galvmed - Protecting African cattle from ECFhttp://www.dfid.gov.uk/r4d/PDF/Outputs/Galv/DFID_impact_case_study_ECF_April_2010[1].pdf 
USAHA: Foreign Animal Diseases. Seventh Editionhttp://www.aphis.usda.gov/emergency_response/downloads/nahems/fad.pdfCopyright © 2008 by United States Animal Health Association ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.Library of Congress Catalogue Number 2008900990ISBN 978-0-9659583-4-9.Publication with 472pp. aimed at providing information for practitioners within the USA to prevent and or mitigate the incursion of foreign animal diseases into that country. Contains general chapters on surveillance, diagnosis, etc. as well as 48 chapters covering individual diseases, mostly those notifiable to the OIE.

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Published online: 22 November 2019

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English

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CABI
CABI Head Office, Wallingford, UK

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