Apis cerana (Asian honeybee)
Datasheet Types: Host animal, Arthropod, Invasive species
Abstract
This datasheet on Apis cerana covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Apis cerana Fabricius (1793)
- Preferred Common Name
- Asian honeybee
- Other Scientific Names
- Apis cerana cerana Fabricius (1793)
- Apis cerana heimifeng Engel (1999)
- Apis cerana indica Fabricius (1798)
- Apis cerana japonica Radoszkowski (1887)
- Apis cerana javana Enderlein (1906)
- Apis cerana johni Skorikov (1929)
- Apis cerana nuluensis Tingek, Koeniger & Koeniger (1996)
- Apis cerana skorikovi Engel (1999)
- Apis delesserti Buttel-Reepen (1906)
- Apis delessertii Guérin-Méneville (1844)
- Apis gronovii Guillou (1841)
- Apis indica Fabricius (1798)
- Apis indica philippina Skorikov (1929)
- Apis indica skorikovi Maa (1944)
- Apis indica var. javana Enderlein (1906)
- Apis indrea Baldensperger (1928)
- Apis johni Skorikov (1929)
- Apis mellifica var. japonica Radoszkowski (1887)
- Apis peroni Latreille (1804)
- Apis perrottetii Guérin-Méneville (1844)
- Apis sinensis Smith (1865)
- Apis socialis Latreille (1804)
- International Common Names
- EnglishAsiatic bee, Asian hive bee, Indian honeybee, Indian bee, Chinese bee, Eastern honeybee, fly bee
Pictures
Worker
Apis cerana (Asian honey bee); Worker. Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. January 2013.
©Rushenb/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 3.0
Worker
Apis cerana (Asian honey bee); Worker on rhododendron leaf. Hong Kong. March 2013.
©Earth100/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 3.0
Worker
Apis cerana (Asian honey bee); Worker. Chemancheri, Kerala, India. May 2013.
©Vengolis/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Worker
Apis cerana (Asian honey bee); Worker. Chemancheri, Kerala, India. May 2013.
©Vengolis/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Workers in hive
Apis cerana (Asian honey bee); Workers in hive. May 2007
©CSIRO (taken by Denis Anderson)/via CSIRO Science Image - CC BY 3.0
Summary of Invasiveness
Apis cerana also known as the ‘Asian honeybee’ has been used for honey production and pollination services for thousands of years across Asia, where it is native. This species has been described as the exact equivalent of its European/African sister species Apis mellifera.
In the 1970’s, A. cerana was intentionally introduced in New Guinea. From there it has continued expanding its range into the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Australia. The main concern is that A. cerana may become an invasive species and pest in invaded areas where it could compete with native fauna (especially insects) and affect the pollination of native flora.
Apis cerana also competes with, and robs the hives of, A. mellifera, which is the most popular bee species used for commercial honey production and crop pollination services. For example, in the Solomon Islands, introduced A. cerana have been reported to seriously impact A. mellifera hives. It has been suggested that the continued spread of the A. cerana across these islands will have economic, environmental and public health consequences.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
Apis cerana is in the order Hymenoptera, family Apidae. The genus Apis consists of eight Asian species and one European species (Oldroyd and Wongsiri, 2009). According to Engel (1999), the species A. cerana has been traditionally subdivided into the following eight subspecies: Apis cerana cerana, Apis cerana heimifeng, Apis cerana indica, Apis cerana japonica, Apis cerana javana, Apis cerana johni, Apis cerana nuluensis and Apis cerana skorikovi.
However, genetic analyses have shown that some of the subspecies may have been inadvertent misidentifications of very similar sympatric species of Apis (Radloff et al., 2010; Park et al., 2015).
A recent study using multivariate morphometric analyses have suggested that a better approach is to subdivide A. cerana into six main statistically defined populations or ‘morphoclusters’ rather than into infraspecific ranks. The six morphoclusters proposed are (Radloff et al., 2010):
•
Northern cerana (Morphocluster I): extends from northern Afghanistan and Pakistan to northwest India, southern Tibet, northern Myanmar, China, Korean peninsula, far eastern Russia and Japan.
•
Himalayan cerana (Morphocluster II): extends from northern India, Tibet and Nepal.
•
Indian Plains cerana (Morphocluster III): extends from the plains of central and southern India and into Sri Lanka.
•
Indo-Chinese cerana (Morphocluster IV): includes Myanmar, northern Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and southern Vietnam.
•
Philippine cerana (Morphocluster V): restricted to the Philippines.
•
Indo-Malayan cerana (Morphocluster VI): extends from southern Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
Description
Adults of A. cerana are 10 mm long, have a fore wing length of 7.4-9.0 mm, are black in colour, with four yellow abdominal stripes and legs of rusty colouration. The sting apparatus has ten lancet barbs and 4-5 pairs of stylet barbs. The distance from the tip of the lancet to the first barb is 49.87 µm. Workers are characterized by a pollen press on the hind leg to transport pollen (Egelie et al., 2015; Burrows et al., 2021).
Apis cerana looks very similar to Apis mellifera, see ‘Similarities to Other Species/Conditions’ section below for a list of physical traits to distinguish these two species.
Species Vectored
Distribution
The native range of A. cerana includes most of Asia and extends from south-eastern Asia to Russia including Japan, India and the Middle East. It has been introduced in New Guinea, Australia, Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands (Oldroyd and Wongsiri, 2009; Koetz, 2013a, b; Burrows et al., 2021).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
Apis cerana was introduced into the northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang and Jilin, China from Russia (Radloff et al., 2010). It was also introduced to Ambon Island to the east of Sulawesi (Maa, 1953) as well as to Iran (Gassparian, 1977; Radloff et al., 2010).
In Papua New Guinea, A. cerana was introduced intentionally in the late 1970s. From there it has continued expanding its range into the Torres Strait, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Australia.
In Australia, a swarm of A. cerana was first detected and exterminated in Darwin, Northern Territory in June 1998 (Barry et al., 2010). Ten years later, in May 2007, A. cerana was reported as established in Cairns, Queensland and it has since spread an estimated 100 km north, south and west of Cairns (Gross et al., 2019).
Introductions
| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Papua New Guinea | Java | 1970s | Honey production | Unknown | Yes | No | Koetz (2013a, b) | |
Risk of Introduction
The risk of introduction of A. cerana is high, especially in areas with international honeybee trade. This species is a proven hitchhiker, and it can spread over large distances hidden in small cavities in boats, trains, trucks and on shipping cargo (BeeAware, 2022).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Natural Dispersal
Under natural conditions, A. cerana spreads through swarming. Colonies can produce up to ten swarms per year. Reproduction, nest disturbances, pest and disease pressure or even a lack of nectar or pollen can cause this species to swarm (Koetz, 2013a, b; Egelie et al., 2015).
Accidental Introduction
This species is a proven hitchhiker, and it can spread over large distances on boats, trains, trucks and on shipping cargo (BeeAware, 2022).
Intentional Introduction
Apis cerana has been intentionally introduced for honey production and pollination services (Koetz, 2013a).
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animal production (pathway cause) | Honey production | Yes | ||
| Crop production (pathway cause) | Commercial pollinators | Yes | ||
| Hitchhiker (pathway cause) | Yes |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Apis cerana could be mistaken for Apis mellifera. In general, A. cerana is slightly smaller, lives in smaller colonies and nests in smaller cavities than A. mellifera (Koetz, 2013a). The following features are used to distinguish between these two species (BeeAware, 2022):
•
Apis cerana flies very quickly and erratically while feeding on floral resources, while A. mellifera forage much more slowly and methodically.
•
The thorax and abdomen of A. cerana have less hair than those of A. mellifera.
•
Apis cerana have more prominent, evenly spaced, and consistent abdominal striping, compared to A. mellifera that tend to have uneven abdominal striping.
•
Apis cerana has a distal abscissa of vein M in the hind wing when viewed using a microscope.
Habitat
Apis cerana can be found in many climatic zones including tropical forests, rainforest, moist deciduous forests, tropical savannah, grasslands, steppes, coniferous forests and taigas (Radloff et al., 2010). The nests of A. cerana are generally found in tree hollows, rock crevices, caves and house cavities (Oldroyd and Wongsiri, 2009; Koetz, 2013a, b; BeeAware, 2022).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Managed forests, plantations and orchards | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural; Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural; Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural; Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural; Harmful (pest or invasive) |
Biology and Ecology
Reproductive Biology
As in all other Apis species, the reproductive biology of A. cerana includes mating flights in which queens fly to a site where thousands of drones are waiting, they mate with several males in flight and the drones die shortly after mating. A queen mates only once in her life and stores the sperm she collects in a special organ which she draws from to lay eggs for the rest of her life (Koeniger et al., 2005).
Physiology and Phenology
Apis cerana has an effective nest thermoregulation system that maintains internal hive temperatures and body temperatures in a range between 33°C to 35.5°C. During summer, this species employs evaporative cooling, where the worker bees cluster outside the nest in hot weather and fan their wings, thus removing excess heat and moisture from the nest and decreasing the hive temperature. In the winter, bees vibrate their flight muscles to generate heat (Oldroyd and Wongsiri, 2009; Egelie et al., 2015).
Population Size and Density
In A. cerana, the size of the colony (i.e. number of bees/nest) varies considerably from 1400-2000 bees in small colonies up to 34,000 bees in large colonies. Most colonies consist of one queen, thousands of workers and numerous drones. The queen lays eggs and she is the mother of all the workers in the colony. The workers perform all hive maintenance tasks including tending to the brood (eggs, larvae and pupae), cleaning, foraging and producing honey. These tasks are divided among the workers by age, a phenomenon called temporal or age-related polyethism. Male drones are produced to mate with a queen from another colony, and therefore are only produced during the reproductive season (Koetz, 2013a, b; Ruttner, 2013; Egelie et al., 2015).
Nutrition
Honeybees collect nectar and pollen from flowering plants, which are indispensable for their nutrition. Pollen is a source of protein and nectar is a source of carbohydrates, and together they provide all the food needed for larval growth and metamorphosis, as well as for adult function and development (Winston, 1987; Koetz, 2013a).
Associations
Like all species in the genus Apis, A. cerana is a generalist bee and visits a broad range of flowering plants to forage for nectar and pollen. In the process, bees provide one of the most important ecological services; pollination (Winston, 1987; Burrows et al., 2021).
Environmental Requirements
Apis cerana thrives in a wide range of habitats and climates but prefer areas with mean annual temperature ranging from 12°C and 36°C (Egelie et al., 2015; BeeAware, 2022).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| BSh - Steppe climate | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation, low altitude, average temp. > 18°C | Tolerated | |
| BSk - Steppe climate | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation, mid altitude, average temp. < 18°C | Tolerated | |
| Cf - Warm temperate climate, wet all year | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year | Preferred | |
| Cfa - Humid subtropical climate | Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, wet all year, warmest month average temp. > 22°C | Preferred | |
| Cw - Warm temperate climate with dry winter | Warm temperate climate with dry winter (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters) | Preferred | |
| Cwa - Humid subtropical climate | Humid subtropical climate (Warm average temp. > 10°C, Cold average temp. > 0°C, dry winters, warmest month average temp. > 22°C) | Preferred | |
| Dwa - Hot summer continental climate | Hot summer continental climate (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters, warmest month average temp. > 22°C) | Tolerated | |
| Dwb - Warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate | Warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Warm average temp. > 10°C, coldest month < 0°C, dry winters, warmest month average temp. < 22°C) | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 50°N | 23°S |
Air Temperature
| Parameter | Lower limit (°C) | Upper limit (°C) |
|---|---|---|
| Mean annual temperature | 12°C | 36°C |
Notes on Natural Enemies
Apis cerana is the natural host of the parasitic mites Varroa jacobsoni, Varroa destructor, Varroa underwoodi, which are major honeybee pests. It is also the host of Nosema ceranae, an obligate microsporidian intracellular parasite infectious to honeybees (Koetz, 2013a, b; Egelie et al., 2015).
In Asia, A. cerana and other Apis species have evolved under predatory pressure from social wasps in the genus Vespa, the most formidable of which are the giant hornets Vespa soror and Vespa mandarinia that attack colonies in groups, kill adult defenders and prey on the brood (Mattila et al., 2020).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nosema ceranae | Parasite | All | to genus | Koetz (2013a, b) | ||
| Varroa destructor (Varroa mite) | Parasite | All | to genus | Koetz (2013a, b) | ||
| Varroa jacobsoni (Varroa mite) | Parasite | All | to genus | Koetz (2013a, b) | ||
| Varroa underwoodi | Parasite | All | to genus | Koetz (2013a, b) | ||
| Vespa mandarinia (northern giant hornet) | Predator | All | to genus | |||
| Vespa soror | Predator | All | to genus |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Biodiversity (generally) | Positive and negative |
| Crop production | Positive and negative |
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
| Native fauna | Negative |
| Native flora | Negative |
| Trade/international relations | Negative |
Impact: Economic
In Australia and the Solomon Islands, the invasion and spread of A. cerana is having ecological and economic impacts affecting beekeepers and public health (Anderson et al., 2012; Koetz, 2013a, b).
In the Solomon Islands, A. cerana and Apis mellifera do not co-exist successfully. Since the introduction of A. cerana to the islands in 2003, colonies of A. mellifera have declined severely, more than 2000 managed hives have been robbed and honey production has been seriously affected (Anderson et al., 2012).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Gregarious
Impact outcomes
Damaged ecosystem services
Negatively impacts livelihoods
Reduced native biodiversity
Negatively impacts trade/international relations
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Pest and disease transmission
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally accidentally
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Economic Value
Apis cerana has been extensively used for honey production and pollination services, especially across its native range in Asia (Ruttner, 2013; Egelie et al., 2015).
Environmental Services
One of the most important ecological services provided by bees (including species in the genus Apis) is pollination. Pollination maintains biodiversity of flowering plants and ecosystem function. Reduction and/or disruption of pollination can lead to local extinction of plant and animal species, decline in fruit and seed production, loss of vegetation cover and, ultimately, the loss of a healthy ecosystem and its services. In terms of agriculture, lack of adequate pollination services can lead to low quality fruit and reduced crop yield (Partap, 2011; Koetz, 2013a, b).
Uses List
Environmental > Commercial pollinator
Human food and beverage > Honey/honey flora
Detection and Inspection
Currently, A. cerana is regarded as a pest only in Australia, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The majority of the information and regulations covering the detection and control of A. cerana have been produced by Biosecurity Queensland DAFF (2022).
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Prevention, Eradication and Control
In Australia, several surveillance and destruction methods have been trialled by Biosecurity Queensland DAFF (2022).
Current response measures include:
•
Passive surveillance: detection and reporting of A. cerana nests and swarms by the public.
•
Active surveillance: general and targeted floral observations, feeding stations and traps.
Current destruction methods include the use of aerosol insecticidal spray and permethrin dust (Koetz, 2013a; BeeAware, 2022).
References
Anderson, D.L., Annand, N., Lacey, M., Ete, S., 2012. Control of Asian honey bees in Solomon Islands.Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR). https://www.aciar.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-08/ final-report-PC-2004-030.pdf
Barry, S., Cook, D., Duthie, R., Clifford, D., Anderson, D., 2010. Future surveillance needs for honeybee biosecurity.Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, (10/107)
BeeAware, 2022. Asian honey bee Apis cerana.https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/asian-honey-bee/
Biosecurity Queensland DAFF, 2022. Asian honey bee manual techniques for the identification, detection and destruction of Apis cerana.https://www.planthealthaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Asian-Honey-Bee-manual.pdf
Burrows S., Ritner, C., Christman, M., Spears, L., Smith-Pardo, A., Price, S., Ramirez, R., Griswold, T., Redford, A., 2021. Exotic bee ID.http://idtools.org/id/bees/exotic/factsheet.php?name=16741
Egelie, A.A., Mortensen, A.N., Gillett-Kaufman, J.L., Ellis, J.D., 2015. Asian honey bee - Apis cerana.Florida, USA: Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida. https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/Apis_cerana.htm#ref
Engel, M.S., 1999. The taxonomy of recent and fossil honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae; Apis).Journal of Hymenoptera Research, 8(2) 165-196.
Gassparian, S., 1977. Studies on Apis indica cerana in eastern part of Iran.
Gross, C.L., Whitehead, J.D., Mackay, E.S.G., Mackay, K.D., Andrew, N.R., Paini, D., 2019. Interactions between two species of recently-sympatric invasive honeybees: Apis cerana induces aggression in Apis mellifera during foraging.Biological Invasions, 21(12) 3697-3706. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-019-02081-y
Hepburn, H.R., Radloff, S.E., 2011. Honeybees of Asia.Springer Science & Business Media.
Koeniger, N., Koeniger, G., Gries, M., Tingek, S., 2005. Drone competition at drone congregation areas in four Apis species.Apidologie, 36(2) 211-221.
Koetz, A.H., 2013. The Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) and its strains - with special focus on Apis cerana Java genotype. Literature review.Queensland Government - Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. https://www.planthealthaustralia.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Asian-Honey-Bee-Literature-Review.pdf
Koetz, A.H., 2013. Ecology, behavior, and control of Apis cerana with a focus on relevance to the Australian incursion.Insects, 4(4) 558-592.
Maa, T.C., 1953. An inquiry into the systematics of the tribus Apidini or honeybees (Hymenoptera).Treubia, 21525-640.
Mattila, H.R., Otis, G.W., Nguyen, L.T., Pham, H.D., Knight, O.M., Phan, N.T., 2020. Honey bees (Apis cerana) use animal feces as a tool to defend colonies against group attack by giant hornets (Vespa soror).PLoS One, 15(12) e0242668.
Oldroyd, B.P., Wongsiri, S., 2009. Asian honey bees: biology, conservation, and human interactions.Harvard University Press. 360 pp.
Park, D.R., Jung, J.W., Choi, B.S., Jayakodi, M., Lee, J.S., Lim, J.S., Yu, Y.S., Choi, Y.S., Lee, M.L., Park, Y., Choi, I.Y., Yang,T.J., Edwards, O.R., Nah, G.J., Kwon, H.W., 2015. Uncovering the novel characteristics of Asian honey bee, Apis cerana, by whole genome sequencing.BMC Genomics, 16(1) 1-16. http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1471-2164-16-1.pdf
Partap, U., 2011. The pollination role of honeybees. In: Honeybees of Asia. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. 227-255.
Radloff, S.E., Hepburn, C., Hepburn, H.R., Fuchs, S., Hadisoesilo, S., Tan, K., Engel, M.S., Kuznetsov, V., 2010. Population structure and classification of Apis cerana.Apidologie, 41(6) 589-601.
Ruttner, F., 2013. Biogeography and taxonomy of honeybees.Springer Science & Business Media.
Winston, M.L., 1987. The biology of the honey bee.Cambridge, MA, USA: Harvard University Press.
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- Ehsan Rahimi, Chuleui Jung, G‐space versus E‐space: Are hornets (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) at equilibrium with honeybees in Asia?, Ecology and Evolution, 10.1002/ece3.11615, 14, 7, (2024).
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