Heterotis niloticus (African bonytongue)
Datasheet Types: Cultured aquatic species, Invasive species, Host animal
Abstract
This datasheet on Heterotis niloticus covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Management, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Heterotis niloticus (Cuvier, 1829)
- Preferred Common Name
- African bonytongue
- Other Scientific Names
- Clupisudis niloticus Cuvier, 1829
- Heterotis adansonii (Cuvier, 1829)
- Heterotis ehrenbergii (Cuvier, 1829)
- Heterotis nilotica (Cuvier, 1829)
- Sudis adansonii Cuvier, 1829
- Sudis nilotica Cuvier, 1829
- Sudis niloticus Cuvier, 1829
- International Common Names
- EnglishAfrican arowanabony tongueheterotis
- Local Common Names
- Beninhwakoualakpote
- Burkina Fasofanarakoko
- Cameroonballibargilareonoussapengerikitou
- Chadkanikawingolngôlô
- Congo Democratic RepublicCongo ya sikamuzalazala
- Czech Republicfantang nilský
- DenmarkAfrikansk knogletunge
- Gabonno namepoisson sans nom
- Germanywestafrikanischer Knochenzuengler
- Ghanafa
- Kenyadese
- Malifanakondo
- Nigeriaafoaikabahlibonytongue
- PhilippinesAfrican arowana
- Senegalbakkatabalabaldeduganden’diaguel
- Sudankatakpileknauk
- Swedenfanntang
- USAAfrican bonytongue
Pictures
African bonytongue
Heterotis niloticus, the African bonytongue
©Solomon R. David-2013
Overview
H. niloticus is a freshwater fish native to many parts of Africa. It is of commercial importance both in fisheries and aquaculture. Adults live in open water of rivers and lakes, where they can be found in the pelagic zone as well as the littoral zone (Moreau, 1982). In the wild it can grow up to 100 cm in length and 10 kg in weight (Ita, 1984). The hardiness of this fish, together with its high growth rate make it a candidate for aquaculture in Africa and it has been transported to a number of countries for this purpose (Welcomme, 1988). It is well suited to polyculture systems with Oreochromis niloticus due to partitioning of resources. Escapees from ponds into the wild have resulted in the establishment of populations which form the basis for fisheries (Welcomme, 1988). Due to general environmental degradation including oil spillages, pollution and destruction of mangrove swamps, this species has lost an estimated 60% of its previous breeding and nursery habitat in Nigeria.
Summary of Invasiveness
The African bonytongue H. niloticus is a large fish that is widespread in many parts of Africa (Moreau, 1982). This species is native to many parts of Africa, and has also been introduced into many African rivers and lakes to increase fish production (Micha, 1973). The hardiness of this fish, together with its high growth rate, make it a candidate for aquaculture in Africa and it has been transported to a number of countries for this purpose (Welcomme, 1988). Escapees from ponds into the wild have resulted in the establishment of populations which can form the basis for fisheries (Welcomme, 1988).
Froese and Pauly (2012) say that several countries report adverse ecological impacts after introduction, but these ecological impacts were not specified. Froese and Pauly (2012) also mention H. niloticus as a potential pest.
Due to general environmental degradation including oil spillages, pollution and destruction of mangrove swamps, this species has lost an estimated 60% of its previous breeding and nursery habitat in Nigeria. Bake and Sadiku (2005) describe a decline in the population density of H. niloticus from Oyun reservoir, Nigeria, over a two-year period (January 2002-December 2003), and the recorded decline of the species from similar reservoirs in Nigeria indicates that the species is threatened in this environment.
On the IUCN Red List Status, H. niloticus is classified as least concern (LC).
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
H. niloticus is one of the two living representatives in Africa of the family Osteoglossidae, a lineage within the ancient fish order Osteoglossiformes (the other species is the freshwater butterfly fish, Pantodon buchholtzi). The Osteoglossidae also contains two genera and three species in South America and one genus and three species in the Southeast Asia-East Indies-Australian region (Li and Wilson, 1996).
H. niloticus (Africa) and Arapaima gigas (South America) are considered by many ichthyologists to be the sole members of a separate family, the Arapaimatidae (Ferraris, 2003). Other living Osteoglossiformes include the Mormyridae (Africa), Gymnarchidae (Africa), Pantodontidae (Africa) and Notopteridae (Africa and Asia).
Description
Body rather elongate, its depth from 3.5 to 5 times in standard length. Head rather short, length 3.5 to 5 times in standard length. Elongated dorsal and anal fins are posteriorly positioned and end close to the small, rounded caudal fin (Bailey, 1994; Dankwa et al., 1999). Dorsal fin with 32-37, anal with 34-39, rays. Scale formula: 2.5/34-40/6. It lacks ‘feelers’ or mandibular barbels. Dermal bones of skull deeply sculptured. Gill rakers thin and serrate, numbering 33 (young) to 98 on the ceratobranchial (lower limb) and 21 (young) to 76 on the epibranchial (upper limb). These numbers increase with the size of the fish. Number of vertebrae: 66-69 (average usually 67). Maximum reported size: 980 mm SL (weight approx. 10,000 g).
Colour is uniformly greyish or bronze; lips yellowish and eye more or less golden. According to some authors (Daget, 1954; Blache et al., 1964; Moreau, 1982), this coloration may turn into blackish when the fish reach sexual maturity. In the young, posterior parts of anal and dorsal fins sometimes marked with dark longitudinal bands, and scales with a dark oval spot at margins of overlapping zones (Paugy, 1990).
A description is also available in Fishbase (Froese and Pauly, 2012). Reproductive organs are described in detail by Adite et al. (2006).
Pathogens Carried
Distribution
According to Levêque et al., (1990), a distinction must be made between the present area of occurrence resulting from man-made introductions, and its original, natural geographical distribution area. It is generally accepted that the first introductions were made in the early 1950s (Moreau, 1982).
Original (or natural) distribution includes all water-basins of the Nilo-Sudanese region: Corubal, Senegal, Gambia, Volta, Niger, Benue, Chad, Nile and Omo rivers and Lake Turkana (Daget, 1984; Levêque et al., 1990; Paugy, 1990). Areas of introduction of H. niloticus are: artificial reservoirs of Côte d’Ivoire (Bandama and Bia basins); the Cross, Sanaga, Nyong and Ogowe rivers; and Lower and Middle Congo basins (the species was apparently unable to overcome the Kisangani falls to move further upstream), Ubangui and Kasaï (Democratic Republic of Congo) (Paugy, 1990). Also introduced in Madagascar (Stiassny and Raminosoa, 1994).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
History of Introduction and Spread
H. niloticus is native in many African countries but has also been introduced in many rivers, natural and artificial lakes and through aquaculture (Micha, 1973). This introduction has been reported by many authors (Iltis, 1961; N’vogo, 1962; Rakotomanampison, 1966; Vincke, 1971; Micha, 1973; Moreau, 1974, 1982; Depierre and Vivien, 1977; Lazard, 1980;Akegbejo-Samsons et al., 2003; Nguenga and Brumett, 2003; and Yao et al., 2003).
The first introductions were made in the early 1950s (Moreau, 1982): Nyong Lake (1952) in South Cameroon; Oubangui River (1956) in the Central African Republic; artificial reservoirs (Ayame and Kossou) in Côte d’Ivoire (1959); Pangalames Est, Haut-Plateaux (1963) in Madagascar; and the Congo River and Lake Toumba (1966) in the Democratic Republic of Congo (then Zaire).
Introductions
| Introduced to | Introduced from | Year | Reasons | Introduced by | Established in wild through | References | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Natural reproduction | Continuous restocking | |||||||
| Cameroon | Cameroon | 1952 | Yes | No | From North to South | |||
| Cameroon | Chad | 1955 | No | No | South Cameroon | |||
| Central African Republic | Cameroon | 1956 | Yes | No | Introduced in Oubangui River | |||
| Congo | Cameroon | 1950 | Yes | No | ||||
| Congo | Sudan | 1950 | Yes | No | ||||
| Congo Democratic Republic | Congo | 1950 | Yes | No | ||||
| Congo Democratic Republic | Congo | 1966 | Yes | No | Moreau (1982) | Haut-Plateaux Congo River and lake Toumba | ||
| Côte d'Ivoire | Cameroon | 1959 | Yes | No | Introduced in artificial lakes Ayamé (1962) and Lake Kossou (1971) and for aquaculture in Bouaké town | |||
| Gabon | Cameroon | 1955 | Yes | No | ||||
| Madagascar | Cameroon | 1963 | Yes | No | For aquaculture at Ivoloina; Pangalames-est, Ogoue River | |||
| Philippines | 1989 | No | No | |||||
| Togo | Yes | No | ||||||
Risk of Introduction
The complexity of the hydrological regime of many African river and lake systems enhances the risk of introduction and spread in related water bodies of the aquatic system. Migration from source population (lakes) during flooding favours the dispersal of Heterotis in related water bodies and therefore will increase the risk of introduction (Adite et al., 2006). Its importance as a candidate for aquaculture and fisheries also enhances the risk of introduction. Escapees from ponds into the wild resulted in established populations, which form the basis for fisheries (Welcomme, 1988).
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Accidental Introduction
No accidental introduction has been recorded. However, the high interconnection of African rivers and lakes systems leading to a complex hydrological regime could allow natural spread of H. niloticus (Adite, 2007). For example in Benin, according to Froese and Pauly (2012), H. niloticus was introduced in the Mono River. However, it is also possible that its presence in this river may result from a natural introduction from adjacent water bodies.
Intentional Introduction
H. niloticus has been intentionally introduced in many African rivers, natural and artificial lakes for fisheries, and is also used in aquaculture and introduced for this purpose (Micha, 1973), as detailed in the History of Introduction section. The first introductions were made in the 1950s.
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aquaculture (pathway cause) | Deliberate | Yes | Yes | |
| Escape from confinement or garden escape (pathway cause) | Natural | Yes | ||
| Fisheries (pathway cause) | Deliberate | Yes | Yes | Moreau (1982) |
| Flooding and other natural disasters (pathway cause) | Natural | Yes | ||
| Food (pathway cause) | Deliberate | Yes | Yes | |
| Research (pathway cause) | Deliberate | Yes | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Aircraft (pathway vector) | Yes | |||
| Aquaculture stock (pathway vector) | Yes | Yes | ||
| Land vehicles (pathway vector) | Yes |
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Like the African catfish Clarias gariepinus, Heterotis spawns during the flooding period during which both species are abundant. For both species, reproduction in captivity is difficult and both are omnivorous and feeding on benthic and pelagic prey (Moreau, 1982; Adite et al., 2005).
Habitat
H. niloticus is a pelagic species, found in freshwater rivers, streams, floodplains, lakes and swamps (Froese and Pauly, 2012). It occurs in shallow water where it feeds on invertebrates, copepods and chironomids. Juveniles are found in swampy places among aquatic vegetation; adults live in the open water of rivers and lakes, where they can be found in the pelagic zone as well as the littoral zone (Moreau, 1982). The species can survive in deoxygenated waters (Moreau, 1982; Adite et al., 2006).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
| Freshwater | Lakes | Principal habitat | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Reservoirs | Principal habitat | Productive/non-natural | |
| Freshwater | Rivers / streams | Principal habitat | Natural | |
| Freshwater | Ponds | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Productive/non-natural | |
| Brackish | Estuaries | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural | |
| Brackish | Lagoons | Secondary/tolerated habitat | Natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
Carrera et al. (2011) reported the development of nine polymorphic nuclear-encoded microsatellite DNA loci for the African bonytongue (H. niloticus). They tested these primers with a sample of 40 individuals from two natural populations in Benin, West Africa. The number of alleles for the nine microsatellites ranged from 2 to 9, observed heterozygosity from 0.125 to 0.882, and expected heterozygosity from 0.156 to 0.810. No significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium or linkage disequilibrium were observed, and there is no indication of null alleles.
Reproductive Biology
Bonytongues (H. niloticus) select sites and construct their nests in shallow marginal areas within the aquatic vegetation at the floodplain. Nests average 116 cm in diameter (range 77–165 cm) and occur at an average water depth of 60 cm (range 40–86 cm). Height of submerged and emergent vegetation surrounding nests ranges from 30 to 135 cm (mean = 89 cm), and the diameter of nest entrances range from 20 to 47 cm (mean = 33 cm). Between 1 and 7 days posthatch, larvae have large yolk sacs and are incapable of significant movement, and thus are particularly vulnerable. When nests containing newly hatched larvae are disturbed, both parents take larvae into their mouths for transportation to another location (Adite et al., 2006). The number of larvae per nest ranges from 3953 to 6125 (mean = 5028). Tending of nests and broods occurs from the time of hatching until juveniles disperse from the nest. Recruitment age is estimated as 6 months (Moreau, 1982), the age at which Heterotis initiates migration from reproductive sites to open water or to floodplains.
In Lake Kan and Lake Ayame in Côte d’Ivoire, the proportions of males and females were 48% and 52%, and 33% and 67%, respectively (Moreau, 1982). In Lakes Tamatave and Manakane in Madagascar, the proportions of males and females were 47% and 53%, and 56% and 44%, respectively (Moreau, 1982). In the Lake Hlan – River Sô system of Benin, of the 1461 specimens sampled, 53.7% were males and 46.3% were females (Adite et al., 2006).
H. niloticus matures at 2 years (Moreau, 1982) and has relatively large eggs (2.5–3.0 mm) and moderate batch fecundity (2700–27,500) for a fish of its size. Consequently, the species displays a life history strategy that is closer to the equilibrium endpoint than the periodic endpoint (Winemiller and Rose, 1992), which implies that parental care is essential for early life stage survivorship and levels of recruitment needed for long term population viability (Winkle et al., 1993; Rose et al., 2001).
Lowest and highest fecundities recorded for individual fish were 2697 (545 mm TL, 500 mm SL, 1.33 kg) and 27,508 oocytes (815 mm TL, 735 mm SL, 4.65 kg), respectively (Adite et al., 2006). In Lake Oubangui, Micha (1973) reported fecundity between 3572 and 15,246 oocytes. Fecundity increased with body length and body weight. Ovarian weight increased with body size. The number of oocytes per gram of ovary was not influenced by body size. Relative fecundity (number of oocytes per gram of body mass) revealed no general association with body size (Adite et al., 2006).
In the Lake Hlan – River Sô system of Benin, the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) was significantly affected by season for both males and females. GSI peaked during the wet season (May to August), then declined progressively throughout the flood period until the beginning of the dry season in November to December. These indicated that the spawning period of bonytongues was restricted to the wet and flood period margins (Adite et al., 2006).
Detailed descriptions of structure and development of reproductive organs are given by Adite et al. (2006).
Physiology and Phenology
Reizer (1964) reported an age at maturity of 20 months for H. niloticus reared in fish ponds. In Madagascar, H. niloticus matured between 2 and 2.5 years old (Moreau, 1982).
Micha (1973) cited by Moreau (1982) reported a size at first maturity of 400 mm (600 g) in Lake Oubangui. The size at first maturity for H. niloticus in the Lake Hlan – River Sô system of Benin was about 575 mm total length (TL) for both male and female. The smallest mature male was 560 mm TL (515 mm Standard Length, 1490 g), and the smallest mature female was 545 mm TL (499 mm Standard Length; 1770 g) (Adite et al., 2006).
In the Lake Hlan – River Sô system of Benin, Length-Weight regressions by habitat, sex, size and season were significant (P < 0.0001) with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.74 to 0.99 and slopes from 2.74 to 4.05, indicating allometric growth. In this aquatic system, body condition varied according to habitat (lake vs river channel) and season (dry, wet, flood ) (Adite et al., 2006).
Longevity
Possibly between 5 and 10 years (Moreau, 1982).
Activity Patterns
H. niloticus selects sites and constructs nests in shallow marginal vegetated areas of the lake. However, during the very high flood period, when water depth became too great at these locations, most bonytongues abandoned their original nests and new nests appeared along newly flooded lake margins (Adite et al., 2006).
Moreau (1982) reported migration during reproduction. A source subpopulation of H. niloticus comprised of spawners, and a sink subpopulation comprised of immature fish (juveniles, sub-adults), have been identified in a permanent lake (Lake Hlan in Benin) and a periodic floodplain (Sô River floodplain) respectively (Adite et al., 2006).
Nutrition
H. niloticus in the River Kaduna flood plain in Nigeria is considered to be predominantly planktivorous (Bake and Sadiku, 2005). However, the diet reported by Adité et al. (2005) along with the relative gut length trend (relative gut length was inversely related to body size of Heterotis) support that H. niloticus is an omnivore rather than a detritivore, a planktivore or a specialist invertebrate feeder. The different food habits of Heterotis in different habitats suggest a degree of trophic plasticity of this species.
In the Lake Hlan – River Sô system of Benin, smaller H. niloticus tended to consume insect larvae and microcrustacae and larger fish tended to consume hard seeds and adults. The thick-walled gizzard of H. niloticus, which generally contained sand, aids digestion of seed coats. Detailed information on diet composition is given by Adité et al. (2005).
Diet breadth tended to increase with size, indicating that bonytongues consume a broader range of food resources as they grow (Adité et al., 2005).
Lauzanne (1972) in Lake Chad recorded the diet of H. niloticus as: fish 2.2%, aquatic insects 19.3%, ostracods 23%, seeds 14%, and zooplankton 11.3%.
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| A - Tropical/Megathermal climate | Average temp. of coolest month > 18°C, > 1500mm precipitation annually | Preferred | |
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| B - Dry (arid and semi-arid) | < 860mm precipitation annually | Tolerated | |
| BS - Steppe climate | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | Tolerated | |
| BW - Desert climate | < 430mm annual precipitation | Tolerated |
Latitude/Altitude Ranges
| Latitude North (°N) | Latitude South (°S) | Altitude lower (m) | Altitude upper (m) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 18 | 22 |
Water Tolerances
| Parameter | Minimum value | Maximum value | Typical value | Status | Life stage | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Conductivity (µmhos/cm) | 99.45 | Optimum | Sô River, Benin (Adite et al., 2006) | |||
| Depth (m b.s.l.) | 0.42 | Optimum | Sô River, Benin (Adite et al., 2006) | |||
| Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) | 0.4 | 4.5 | Optimum | Sô River, Benin (Adite et al., 2006) | ||
| Iron (mg/l) | 1.04 | Optimum | Sô River, Benin (Adite et al., 2006) | |||
| Nitrite (mg/l) | 0.002 | Optimum | Sô River, Benin (Adite et al., 2006) | |||
| Salinity (part per thousand) | 0 | Optimum | Sô River, Benin (Adite et al., 2006) | |||
| Suspended solids (mg/l) | 46.7 | Optimum | Sô River, Benin (Adite et al., 2006) | |||
| Turbidity (JTU turbidity) | 40 | Optimum | Sô River, Benin (Adite et al., 2006) | |||
| Water pH (pH) | 5.4 | Optimum | Sô River, Benin (Adite et al., 2006) | |||
| Water temperature (ºC temperature) | 15 | 30 | Optimum | Froese-Pauly, 2012 |
List of Diseases and Disorders
Notes on Natural Enemies
In fish ponds, it has been reported that a crustacean of genus Lernaeogiraffa attacks the gills of H. niloticus and may affect 40% of the population. In fish farming in Ghana, the parasite Lernea has been found (Micha, 1973). In Lake Ougbangui, the protozoa, Glossatella sp. caused larva death by asphyxiation. In the Oueme River in Benin, Euzet and Dossou (1979) reported the presence of Heterotesia voltae on the gills of H. niloticus. Sporozoa infection (Myxobolus sp.), Tenuisentis sp. infection and parasitic infestations (protozoa, worms, etc.) have been reported (Paperna, 1996).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Apiosoma | Parasite | to genus | ||||
| Heterotesia voltae | Parasite | to species | ||||
| Lernaeogiraffa | Parasite | All Stages | to genus | |||
| Myxobolus | Pathogen | |||||
| Tenuisentis | Pathogen |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Positive |
| Human health | Positive |
Impact: Economic
In many African rivers and lakes, H. niloticus is intensively exploited compared with other fish species, and some fishermen go out for fishing only to hunt H. niloticus (Moreau, 1982; Adite, 2007).H. niloticus is a large species with high commercial value (Micha, 1973; Moreau, 1982; Adite, 2007). About 682 tons of H. niloticus is caught annually in Benin, valued at US$500,000 (Adite, 2007). Gbaguidi and Pfeiffer (1996) estimated the harvest of bonytongues in Benin at 742 tons.
Women buy H. niloticus from fishermen on lakes and rivers and sell it in local markets or abroad: women from other countries sell H. niloticus to Nigeria where it fetches a high price.
Farming of H. niloticus is widespread in many African countries, including Côte d’Ivoire (Yao et al., 2003), Cameroon (Nguenga and Brummett, 2003), Nigéria (Olanyan and Zwilling, 1963; Akegbejo-Samsons et al., 2004), and Benin (Adite, 2007). Moreau (1982) reported a yield of 2 t/ha/year from Heterotis farming with individuals weighing about 1 kg.
Impact: Environmental
H. niloticus inhabits fresh water habitat in associations with many other species. Negative impacts on habitats and biodiversity have not been recorded because of its omnivorous feeding habit and its trophic plasticity (Adité et al, 2005). Froese and Pauly (2012) report that several countries experience adverse ecological impacts after introduction, but these ecological impacts were not specified. Froese and Pauly (2012) also mention H. niloticus as a potential pest.
More research is required to evaluate the impact of H. niloticus introductions on other species and on river and lake habitats.
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Tolerant of shade
Capable of securing and ingesting a wide range of food
Highly mobile locally
Benefits from human association (i.e. it is a human commensal)
Long lived
Fast growing
Has high reproductive potential
Impact mechanisms
Rapid growth
Uses
H. niloticus is of high commercial value for fisheries. Fishing of H. niloticus takes place in all African countries where the species occurs. In Bénin H. niloticus is caught in Lake Nokoué, Lagoon Porto-Novo, Lake Doukonta, Lake Togbadji, Lake Hlan, Lake Toho, Lake Ahouangan, Lake Dati, Lagune Toho-Todougba, Sô River, Ouémé River; Mono River, Couffo River, and Sazué River.
Research on the exploitation of H. niloticus for aquaculture is ongoing in many African countries. In Côte d’Ivoire, Yao et al. (2003) report work on rearing density, growth and survival. Nguenga and Brummett (2003) evaluate the establishment of H. niloticus in Nyong River in Cameroon. Work in Nigeria includes the evaluation of aquaculture potential of H. niloticus (Olanyan and Zwilling, 1963), and reproduction and aquaculture potential of Heterotis niloticus reared in fish ponds in southwest Nigéria (Akegbejo-Samsons et al., 2004). Preliminary results on the effects of weaning age on survival and growth of H. niloticus in Benin are reported by Adite (2007). Problems for aquaculture development include artificial reproduction and larval rearing (weaning).
H. niloticus is also used commercially as an aquarium species (Froese and Pauly, 2012).
Uses List
General > Botanical garden/zoo
General > Capital accumulation
General > Laboratory use
General > Pet/aquarium trade
General > Ritual uses
Materials > Skins/leather/fur
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Source of medicine/pharmaceutical
Human food and beverage > Beverage base
Human food and beverage > Eggs
Human food and beverage > Meat/fat/offal/blood/bone (whole, cut, fresh, frozen, canned, cured, processed or smoked)
Human food and beverage > Oil/fat
Drugs, stimulants, social uses > Religious
Behaviour
H. niloticus is an omnivorous and microphagous species. Predominantly a bottom feeder, Hickley and Bailey (1987) considered it as a mud-feeder and Olaosebikan and Raji (1998) reported it as a phytoplankton feeder in West Africa. It has a diurnal feeding rhythm, with most feeding taking place at dawn and dusk. It feeds on invertebrates, copepods and chironomids (Reed, 1967). It is the only member of Osteoglossidae with an epibranchial spiral organ, which is used to taste water before activating microfiltration (filter feeding). It is a hardy fish which tolerates very low limits of dissolved oxygen levels in water. Its auxiliary branchial air-breathing organs enable it to survive under depleted oxygen in water. H. niloticus is a nest builder (Balon, 1975), which breeds in swamps and floodplains in the wet season (Bailey, 1994). The male offers parental care by guarding the young leaving the nest (Balon, 1975).
Growout Management Table
| Ecosystem | Growout systems | Inland | Coastal | Adult stocking density (/m3) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Extensive | Semi-intensive | Intensive | ||||
| Floodplains | Yes | |||||
| Lagoons | Yes | |||||
| Lakes | Yes | |||||
| Reservoirs | Yes | |||||
| Rivers/streams | Yes | |||||
| Swamps | Yes | |||||
Natural Food Sources
| Food source | Life stages | Contribution to total food intake (%) | Feeding methods | Feeding frequency | Feeding characteristics | Details |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| algae | Aquatic|Adult Aquatic|Broodstock Aquatic|Fry Aquatic|Larval | 0-21.87 | ||||
| insects | All Stages | 4.29-64.44 | ||||
| microcrustacea | All Stages | 0.54-27.07 | ||||
| molluscs | Aquatic|Adult Aquatic|Broodstock | 0.07-11.59 | ||||
| sands and detritus | Aquatic|Adult Aquatic|Broodstock | 11.31-43.30 | ||||
| seeds | Aquatic|Adult Aquatic|Broodstock | 5.62-38.66 |
Related Case Studies (Cultured Aquatic Species)
Links to Websites
| Name | URL | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway | https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.m93f6 | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
| Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) | http://griis.org/ | Data source for updated system data added to species habitat list. |
Organizations
| Name | Address | Country | URL |
|---|---|---|---|
| PRECOB Programme de Recherches pour la conservation de la Biodiversité | Département de Zoologie et GénétiqueFaculté des Sciences et TechniquesUniversité d’Abomey-Calavi 08 BP 0234 Cotonou | Benin |
References
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- Johnny Ogunji, Onyedikachi Evulobi, Stanley Iheanacho, Sven Wuertz, Heterotis niloticus (African Bonytongue) Domestication: Potentials, Efforts, and Challenges, Fishes, 10.3390/fishes10010003, 10, 1, (3), (2024).
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